Biodiversity in South-East Asia - A Mini Report on the State of Biodiversity Across South-East Asia
Introduction
South-East Asia is a melting pot for biodiversity, as the flora and fauna of South and East Asia converge with Australasia and Oceania to produce some of the most vibrant, eclectic and unique species in the world. The warm tropical climate of the region alongside the abundant freshwater sources and rich, fertile lands have lead humanity to settle across South-East Asia and for millenia live in relative peace with the abundant biodiversity. For centuries South-East Asia has played host to waves of colonisation which has depleted natural resources and decimated its biodiversity and in the decades since independence every nation in the region has commenced plans to protect the natural world whilst balancing a need to develop and bring their populations out of poverty. Today, South-East Asia has reached a critical point as numerous species come close to extinction and natural water sources choke with the world’s waste. The coming months and years will be critical for the survival of South-East Asia’s biodiversity.
The State of Biodiversity in South-East Asia
When one pictures the biodiversity or natural spaces of South-East Asia a sharp dichotomy comes into view. On one side are the graceful, wise orangutans drifting through the trees of the tropical rainforests or the clear waters surrounding Thailands floating islands. On the other side are the thousands of tonnes of plastic which continue to choke the Mekong river and the rows of palm oil plantations that stretch as far as the eye can see. South-East Asia continues to be a biodiversity hotspot which encompasses around 20% of global plant, animal and marine species (Gasparatos et al., 2011). “The region is home to wetlands, tropical rainforests, peatlands, coral reefs, mangroves, and river deltas” all of which are collectively under threat from climate change, sea level rise, deforestation and destructive resource extraction (Nadarajah, 2023). The complex web of underlying factors which drive biodiversity loss in the region (as exhibited to the right) have had devastating results. Deforestation in SE Asia is some of the highest globally, the region also has the highest mining rate in the tropics, the greatest number of hydropower plants under construction and a rate of consumption of species for traditional medicinal uses which threatens global biodiversity (Hughes, 2017). The most imminent threat is the rapid loss of original forest cover with some nations such as the Philippenes and parts of Indonesia losing over half of their forest ecosystems, there are now “projections of as much as 98% loss for some regions in the coming decade” (Hughes, 2017). This mass destruction of forest habitats “could result in projected losses of 13–85% of biodiversity in the region by 2100” (Sodhi et al., 2009, 317-328). Researchers have found that the push for growth and development in the region is playing a significant role in biodiversity loss as “a higher number of threatened species is associated with rising per capita income, human population and a low level of corruption control” (Tan et al., 2022, 63260-63276). The nations of South-East Asia are facing numerous challenges in conserving their natural spaces and protecting the unique ecosystems which thrive within them. In order to achieve this there will need to be a mixture of policies and incentives introduced such as monitoring and regulating the wildlife trade so as to reduce the illegal wildlife trade, creating appropriate financial incentives for the sustainable use of land and production practices and finally reaching out to communities to provide education and funding collaborative research projects in order to strengthen development policy (Gasparatos et al., 2011). There is also opportunity for job creation as existing conservation projects in Cambodia have shown success in providing a habitat for threatened species whilst creating 449 jobs in law enforcement, community patrols, conservation and eco-tourism. Reducing overfishing and can also have benefits as Malaysia’s Mustapha marina park project has banned large-scale commercial fishing, instead only allowing traditional methods. This has “boosted the local economy by increasing the incomes of people living in coastal communities, providing jobs and improving food security” (Read, 2022). These projects, and many others like them, could be scaled up and prove beneficial to the continues development of South-East Asia. In order to better understand the true state of biodiversity in the region today and what plans there are for the future it is crucial that we take a closer look at a collection of individual, yet deeply interconnected nations in South-East Asia; Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei.
Malaysia (Borneo)
“Malaysia has an estimated 15,000 species of vascular plants, 306 species of mammals, 742 species of birds, 242 species of amphibians, 567 species of reptiles, over 449 species of freshwater fish, over 500 species of marine fish and more than 150,000 species of invertebrates”. (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2023). It is ranked the 12th most biodiverse nation on the planet and this vast quantity of natural resources has, in the years since its independence, allowed Malaysia to experience rapid economic development. Unlike in previous reports where we have focused on the biodiversity of an entire nation this case study of Malaysia will focus on one region within the country. Borneo is the third largest island in the world and has for centuries been densely covered by a mixture of mangrove forests and rainforests inhabited by every manner of creature (Butler, 2020). Malaysian Borneo comprises the states of Sabah and Sarawak whic fall within the Sundaland Biodiversity Hotspot, one of the biologically richest hotspots on earth. “About 40% of the 215 species of mammals found in the state of Sabah are considered to be of conservation concern. A significant cause of this is due to habitat fragmentation by oil palm plantations driven by worldwide demand for palm oil, as well as intense logging and forest fires. As a result, between 2002 and 2019 Malaysian Borneo experienced a 17.9% loss in primary forest” (World Land Trust, 2023). In the race for development Malaysia has placed intense pressure on its natural resources, particularly those available in the Bornean rainforest, in doing so the drivers for biodiversity loss both in Borneo and across Malaysia have mushroomed to encompass;
Land development,
Pollution,
Poaching,
Climate Change,
Invasive alien species,
Increased demand for food,
Demand for agricultural products, goods and services,
Demand for exotic wild meat, traditional and herbal remedies,
Illegal wildlife trade (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2023),
Deforestation (linked to a demand for furniture, paper pulp and even chopsticks),
Palm oil production,
Land clearing (Borneo, especially Kalimantan, has also been heavily affect by peat fires set for land-clearing purposes. Millions of hectares of peat, scrub, degraded forest, and rainforest have gone up in flames over the past 30 years) (Butler, 2020).
For Malaysia and the two other states which share a portion of Borneo - Indonesia and Brunei - the greatest difficulty lies in balancing economic growth with sustainable development. This can prove difficult when continuing current exploitative practices does not require an extensive and possibly expensive overhaul of industry and the economy. Nevertheless, the combination of the climate emergency and growing levels of awareness related to conservation and biodiversity decline have pushed efforts forward to protect what remains of Malaysia’s natural spaces. On a governmental level at least 40 environmental laws and policies have been put into place. Commencing in 1998 with implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity which consisted of 15 strategies and 87 action plans (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2023) followed by the Biosafety Act 2007, International Trade in Endangered Species Act 2008, Wildlife Conservation Act (WCA) 2010 and Access to Biological Resources and Benefit Sharing Act 2017 (Tong, 2020). Though the number of new laws and policies is promising they have also come under criticism for their shortcomings in relation to their implementation which include “the limitations of existing legislative frameworks, unclear administration of biodiversity management, and lack of an integration of policy in biodiversity management” (Tong, 2020). Meanwhile, in the cyber realm efforts are underway by the Global Coalition to End Wildlife Trafficking Online, an organisation spearheaded by the World Wildlife Fund and aided by Microsoft, Google, Facebook and Instagram, to take away the digital tools of online traffickers “by shutting-down loopholes in social media and e-commerce platforms, thereby making it more difficult for poachers and traffickers to sell or advertise their wares online (National Geographic, 2023). In an effort to fight back against the wide scale deforestation and habitat loss the World Land Trust in working alongside Hutan, a grassroots wildlife research and conservation initiative based in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo, to expand the Pangi and Keruak wildlife corridors. This project has come with numerous benefits such as reducing the erosion of riverbanks, protecting local freshwater fisheries and providing employment all in the hope that the corridor will allow species to move more freely and ensure their long-term survival. As part of the overall project women from the local community of orang sungai tribe are placed in charge of overseeing the planting, maintaining and monitoring of native tree seedlings to restore former palm oil plantations (World Land Trust, 2023). This work by Hutan is a primary example of how conservation can have direct benefits for local communities and local economies. It also proves that such projects can place gender equality at their heart and put an emphasis on local Indigenous peoples being the guardians of the natural world. For Malaysia “the causes of deforestation in Borneo are not complex; but the solutions are” (Butler, 2020), this statement runs true for near all of the drivers of biodiversity loss in the region. As much as conservation projects and new protection laws are a positive first step there will need to be a far greater recognition of the value of the regions forests which translates not only to policy making but to efficient, effective implementation of those policies. By working towards a knowledge based service economy as opposed to an extractive economy it may be possible to have Borneo’s ecosystems survive into the next century (Butler, 2020). This will necessitate a unified, nation-wide approach and a possible reduction of state government power over natural resources (Keeton & Esterman, 2021).
Singapore
Singapore has become one of South-East Asia’s most recognisable shining metropolises which appears to ooze wealth out of every pore as the recent hit movie Crazy Rich Asians only served to demonstrate. Whilst the film may be fiction, for the select few it is reality and with such a high level of development and glittering success in such a densely packed space it does make one wonder, where does the biodiversity fit in? How does a nation prioritise continued economic growth as well as protecting their natural spaces?
Singapore consists of one main island and 60 small offshore islands containing “1,190 species of vascular plant species in… primary forest fragments, which provide refuge to 44 species of mammals, 207 species of birds, 72 species of reptiles, 25 species of amphibians, 33 species of freshwater fishes and 156 species of butterflies” (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2023). As an island nation Singapore also benefits from a rich and diverse number of marine species including 100 reef fish species, 200 species of sponges, 225 species of hard corals, 31 mangrove species, 23 seagrass species, 450 species of crustaceans, 580 species of molluscs, 856 species of marine fish and 500 species of seaweed. There are also a number of other species which live and thrive in its mangrove habitats such as “estuarine crocodiles, mud lobsters, mudskippers, archerfish, pipefish, crabs and bivalves” (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2023). The current levels of biodiversity in Singapore are impressive considering the city state’s chequered past. In 1965 Singapore was renowned as a polluter’s paradise consisting of “mucky rivers, polluted canals and raw sewage running rampant”, this has made its transformation from “polluted backwater into global green powerhouse” (UN Environment Programme, 2018) all the more impressive. Yet, the improvements made by the government at the initial behest of Lee Kuan Yew in the early days of the 1960’s did not come easy and requiremed concrete dedication to creating generations of eco-activists in their citizens in order to keep the ball rolling. Nevertheless, “preserving Singapore’s evergreen cityscape as a leading example of an environmentally concious city in the region” (WWF, 2023) does not come without its challenges such as;
Habitat loss and degradation,
Pollution,
Poaching,
Competition from alien species,
Land reclamation (Singapore’s coast has decreased the coral reef cover by about 60%),
Development pressures and coastal modifications (such as the damming up of rivers and canalisation of streams or waterways),
Coastal erosion,
Rising sea levels,
Climate change,
Ocean acidification (mass bleaching events) (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2023),
Bird-building collisions (Singapore National Parks Board, 2022)
Illegal wildlife trafficking (Ang, 2021).
Despite the challenges associated with protecting biodiversity and solidifying a sustainable future for the city Singapore is one of the most successful nations to be found in this entire series of mini biodiversity reports. Naturally, there are going to be areas which they may struggle with, most notably increasing the quantity of protected land from the current 5% to meet the 30 by 30 global conservation target (Tan, 2023). Due to Singapore’s limited quantity of land the city state may need to carefully consider increasing protection of freshwater and ocean habitats to make up the short fall. In fact, the urbanisation and development of Singapore’s coastal environments as well as its overexploitation of marine resources may well be one of their greatest hurdles to overcome as it continues to pose a serious threat to marine biodiversity. The city state will need to see a shift from “development-centric to biodiversity-centric planning” (Chou, 2023) if they want to continue to protect and enhance marine biodiversity. Meanwhile, for life on land things are more positive. In just 20 years Singapore managed to increase its forest cover from 36% to 47% of total land cover by planting 17,000 native trees and expanding wildlife corridors (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2023). The country has introduced strong counter-polluting measures and through urban planning managed to integrate nature/green areas into urban infrastructure by ensuring developers produce Environmental Impact Assessment reports and adhere to a set of Biodiversity Impact Assessment Guideline (Singapore National Parks Board, 2022). Singapore’s focus on long term planning and effective implementation as well as their continued efforts to mobilise popular support in favour of balancing conservation with economic growth has proved effective. Though its painstaking efforts to clean up the city pioneer environmentally conscious urban planning Singapore has placed itself as a leader of biodiversity conservation. If, in the coming years it is able to clamp down on the illegal wildlife trade and most crucially bring its climate change commitments up to scratch then Singapore is also in with a chance of becoming a regional stronghold for biodiversity and proving that cities can be sustainable and not develop at the cost of the environment.
Brunei Darussalam
Nestled on the North coast of Borneo is one of the world’s last Sultanate’s. Brunei, with its rich history and unique culture remains as one of those rare pockets of animal and plant life which is yet to experience the devastating rates of deforestation, poaching, industrial farming and pollution that the rest of the island is currently undergoing (Wasil, 2019). This small kingdom is bursting at the seems with life. Home to 6% of global biodiversity and 300 out of the 390 species endemic to the island (Wasil, 2019) Brunei boasts some of the most spectacular wildlife in the world. The natural ecosystems of Brunei range from sandy beaches to estuarine mangroves to mudflat zones, moving inland there are swampy coastal planes gradually extending upwards into the low mountainous terrain which grows up towards the main mountain range running along the border with Sarawak. Tropical evergreen forests covers 81% of the land and the mangroves of Brunei represent the largest intact mangroves in Northern Borneo. Diving into the oceans it is possible to find a unique blend of hard and soft corals built up from 400 different species of coral. The diversity of species in Brunei is overwhelming, the nation possesses “an estimated 15,000 species of vascular plants, with an estimated 2,000 species of trees” (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2023). Brunei shares much of its animals and plant species with the rest of Borneo, however, there are a few unique endemic species such as the Proboscis monkey, the ground squirrel and two crocodile species - the estuarine crocodile and the false gharial (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2023). Unfortunately, the extensive biodiversity of Brunei, like every other nation on earth, is not living peacefully, untouched by a human presence. There are numerous factors which are beginning to seep into the nation and cause a decline in biodiversity such as;
Land development,
Pollution,
Climate change,
Invasive alien species (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2023),
Deforestation (Brunei lost 11.2 percent of its forests between 1990 and 2005) (Mongabay, 2023),
Industrial farming (Wasil, 2019)
The list of drivers for biodiversity loss in Brunei is relatively small and that is for good reason. It is one of the few South-East Asian nations which does not export timber and retains strict forestry laws linked to slash-and-burn agriculture, fining those who are found to clearing land illegally (Mongabay, 2023). This has meant that around 75% of Brunei’s forests remain intact (Asian Center for Biodiversity, 2023). Though there are worries over the future of Brunei’s rainforest when the nation’s oil and gas reserves wane, for now the nation presents a beacon of hope for biodiversity in the region. This worry could be assuaged, at least to an extent, by the nations continued push for ecotourism and conservation. The untouched landscapes, dense forests and diverse wildlife makes Brunei a primate spot for ecotourism which can generate revenue for the local economy whilst raising awareness on the importance of conservation (Rehan, 2023). For Brunei the race to reforesting has already been won as they have already surpassed the 30 by 30 conservation target, “forest reserves cover 41% of the total land area and another 15% of the land is being proposed for further gazettement, thus bringing the total size of forest reserves to 55% of the total land area of the country” (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2023). Instead Brunei is focusing in on more regional issues such as restoring mangroves after clearing for development. The Pulau Muara Besar bridge has exhibited a successful attempt to regrow mangrove ecosystems after the original system was removed during construction. By taking the time to visit mangrove sites and understand the restoration process i.e. taking into account “ the sediment types and tidal flow onsite, identifying suitable mangrove species to plant, knowing where and how to source and care for them as well as adopting appropriate planting techniques” the site has seen 70% of its plant saplings survive, a high total given the complexities associated with mangrove restoration (DHI, 2023). The methods and process used in this project has clearly exhibited how Brunei is willing to spend time and money to ensure that development once again does not come at the cost of the natural world. It will be crucial for Brunei to continue to see its pristine forests as “the country’s second oil, an attraction that can bring in high income” (Wasil, 2019), as long as it is safeguarded in the right way. “Preserving Brunei’s biodiversity and increasing growth and prosperity can go hand in hand” (DHI, 2023) if Brunei promotes is biodiversity not as a resource to be pillaged but one to be protected as a haven for South-East Asian flora and fauna.
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