Cobalt Mining in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
In our previous paper we covered all the major issues associated with the mining of cobalt and various other precious minerals which are contributing to the sustainability revolution. In this paper we will shift focus to the solutions and innovations which are taking place in the mining sector in the hope that the further dissemination of this information will educate the general public and possibly inspire those involved in mining to look into and apply some of the things they have learnt here. Our emphasis will also be on ESG’s, SDG’s and accountability which all have a part to play in changing the face of mineral mining around the world.
ESGs, SDGs & Accountability
Historically, the mining industry has seen all manner of changes and reforms which have usually only come about after considerable pressure has been placed on companies and governments to start protecting their workers instead of solely focusing on profit. Until recently the environmental implications of mining were at best overlooked and at worst allowed to go on in the full knowledge of the perpetrators. Mining is in itself a difficult business and as we have seen so far will destroy traditional communities and in most cases reshape them to fit the needs of the mining industry. For a moment I would like you to imagine a small Welsh village or town. Like so many there are rows of terraced houses, a local primary school, maybe a few shops and in the background will be what is left of the pits and mines of old. Today, they are covered over in grass and nature is taking them back, but for hundreds of years, generation after generation, they were the busy, dirty backbone of the Welsh economy. Entire communities were transformed as mining took the place of agriculture and men and women would spend their entire working lives down the pit digging up coal for meager wages in unsafe conditions to power a nations industrial revolution. However, as mining gradually became less profitable and mine workers found their voices and began to fight for a safer working environment and better pay, the entire system began to crumble. Today, many of the old mining towns face new difficulties, with pit closures, high unemployment and a general lack of opportunities for the community to revive itself. This same story is played out again and again every time humanity finds a natural resource and exploits it until it either runs out or loses it profitability. From Arkansas to Wales to the Congo mining causes such severe disruption and the manner in which it is carried out and the timeline of beneficial changes for the workers is and will be exactly the same unless we break the wheel. However, there is hope and it comes in the form of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), “the mining industry can impact positively and negatively across the SDGs. Mining can foster economic development by providing opportunities for decent employment, business development, increased fiscal revenues, and infrastructure linkages” (UNDP, 2022). The World Economic Forum white paper sets out in exact detail which SDGs are most effected by mining and the possible resolutions for their current behaviour;
“Environmental Sustainability: Mining activities typically cause impacts on land, water, the climate and the flora, fauna and people that depend on these resources:
– SDG6 – Clean Water and Sanitation, and SDG15 – Life on Land: Mine development requires access to land and water, presenting significant adverse impacts on lands and natural resources that can be mitigated or avoided.
– SDG7 – Energy Access and Sustainability and SDG13 – Climate Action: Mining activities, are energy and emissions intensive, presenting opportunities for greater efficiency as well as expanding access to energy.
Social Inclusion: Mining can significantly impact local communities, bringing economic opportunities, but also challenges relating to livelihoods and human rights:
– SDG1 – End Poverty, SDG5 – Gender Equality and SDG10 – Reduced Inequalities: Mining generates significant revenues through taxes, royalties and dividends for governments to invest in economic and social development, in addition to opportunities for jobs and business locally. Mining companies can take an inclusive approach by working with communities to understand the mines’ actual and potential positive and negative impacts. Companies can also support participatory local decision-making processes regarding the mining operations, the equitable allocation of benefits and the resolution of grievances, and identify and expand opportunities to strengthen the voice and influence of marginalized groups, including women, to ensure that inequalities are reduced, rather than reinforced, by the economic opportunities a mine may bring.
– SDG16 – Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions: Mining can contribute to peaceful societies and the rule of law by preventing and remedying companycommunity conflict, respecting human rights and the rights of indigenous peoples, avoiding illicit transfers of funds to public officials or other persons, ensuring transparent reporting of revenue flows, and supporting the representative decisionmaking of citizens and communities in extractives development.
Economic Development: Mining can have a local, regional and national impact on economic development and growth that can be leveraged to build new infrastructure, new technologies and workforce opportunities.
– SDG8 – Decent Work and Economic Growth: Mining can generate new economic opportunities for citizens and members of local communities, including jobs, training, and business development relating to mining operations, associated service providers, or new local economies linked to the mine.
– SDG9 – Infrastructure, Innovation and Industrialization and SDG12 – Responsible Consumption and Production: Mining can help drive economic development and diversification through direct and indirect economic benefits and by spurring the construction of new infrastructure for transport, communications, water and energy. Mining also provides materials critical for renewable technologies and the opportunity for companies to collaborate across the supply chain to minimize waste, and to reuse and recycle” (World Economic Forum, 2016).
Through the use of SDGs we can accurately pinpoint those areas which each individual mine needs to work on as well as in the overall sector. Through direct operations as well as partnerships with government and civil society the benefits of mining can extend beyond the life of the mine itself and provide positive future impacts on the natural environment, social capital and climate change. Those companies which are committed to the SDGs could benefit from improved relations with communities and governments leading to easier access to financial resources. Whilst, those who fail to engage meaningfully could be putting their operations at risk as consumer consciousness increases and company accountability becomes a fundamental principle of doing business in the 21st century (Colombia Centre on Sustainable Investment, 2022). To this end a number of cobalt mining companies operating in the DRC and the businesses they supply are making moves to formalise ASMs to support ethical and safer practices. Several big-tech companies, including BASF, Samsung SDI, BMW Group and Samsung Electronics have launched Cobalt for Development 2019 which will work “for an initial period of three years to analyze how the workers’ lives, work environment, and communities can be improved. This initiative solicits local input to ensure sustainability and enhance local ownership” (Kuzmina and Lawson, 2021). Though these assessments and the large scale analysis of the current conditions of miners will be of benefit when it comes to making much needed improvements it does not yet go far enough to assauging not only consumer fears of accessing cobalt through child labour and unsafe working conditions but also does little to make an immediate impact on workers lives. Tesla has gone one step further by announcing a pilot blockchain program to trace cobalt from mine to product as a way of introducing transparency into the supply chain. It is believed that by regulating small-scale cobalt mining in the DRC it will “enable Congo's small-scale miners to be better compensated, have the proper equipment, and operate safely while eradicating child labor. An additional benefit is that artisanal miners can work small deposits that would be uneconomical for large mining companies” (Kuzmina and Lawson, 2021). It is becoming clear that though cobalt is important to the green revolution, our plans to combat climate change cannot come at the expense of the lives, health, fulfillment and happiness of the people who are working so hard to help us achieve our goals. We cannot simply trade off the environment for social growth and foreign investment nor can we leave communities at a disadvantage by solely prioritising the environment. Instead we must “fight every battle everywhere, always” (HBO, 2017), we cannot allow for one moment an error in judgement or ignorance because if we do our so called fight against climate change loses its moral authority. One of the few ways that this can be achieved is through implementing ESG metrics and for every company no matter how big or small to introduce block-chaining.
The Democratic Republic of the Congo
As a short recap cobalt mining is most prevalent in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), having produced around 120,000 metric tonnes in 2021 (Garside, 2021), that total is set to increase as global demand from electric vehicle producers escalates. The DRC is one of the most resource rich nations on the planet, however, it is also home to extensive biodiversity with numerous rare and endangered flora and fauna calling the DRC rainforests home. Meanwhile, the resilient peoples and communities of the DRC are working hard to recover post civil war and build back for a more prosperous future. The Democratic Republic of the Congo could become an economic powerhouse in the years to come if they avoid falling prey to the modern day climate colonialism which is already snapping at the heals of their corrupt and generally ineffective/inefficient government. As large scale mining conglomerates from the US, China and beyond continue to buy up land and resources whilst taking advantage of the cheap labour offered by the Congolese people, three quarters of which live in extreme poverty (Nogrady, 2020), there are fears that once international companies have leached everything they can from the Congo this already struggling nation will have little left to support its people and develop into a thriving modern state with a strong position on the world stage. Cobalt mining in the DRC has already caused controversy through the use of child labour, the exploitation and deplorable working conditions of miners, ground, air and water pollution and the biodiversity loss associated with exploration and mining in new sites in and around the rainforest. The complex challenges associated with mining in this region can appear insurmountable as sustainable development continues to remain elusive and economic instability makes for difficulties in securing rights for miners and transferring resources back into the hands of the Congolese people. So what can and is being done to turn all of this around?
With a renewed focus from end users (consumers) big technology and vehicle companies are finding themselves under increased pressure to do their due diligence by ensuring that any cobalt in their products can be traced back through the entire supply chain and is responsibly sourced. Anything to the contrary of this may be subject not only to the scrutiny of consumers and cause possible boycotts but may see large tech firms meet with legal action, such as in the 2019 case when Apple, Alphabet (Google), Dell, Microsoft and Tesla faced a lawsuit “alleging they aided and abetted in the death and injury of children working to mine cobalt that has ended up in their products” (Nogrady, 2020). Though the use of legal systems against corporate wrong doing is a step in the right direction it is also guilty of only tackling a problem once it has reached the end of the production line instead of going straight to source. In recognising this issue numerous projects have sprung up over the past few years which hope to make changes from improving the conditions in which miners must work to developing technology and systems which allow companies to track their cobalt in order to make more sustainable choices.
The Business & Human Rights Resource Centre, an international nongovernmental organisation, has developed an online tool called the Transition Minerals Tracker. This tracker allows the user to;
“Understand who the biggest producers of six key minerals needed for the low-carbon transition are, and where they operate;
Explore the key human rights risks related to mining of these minerals, including key reports by partner organisations shedding light on egregious abuses;
Identify whether these companies have human rights policies in place;
Track hotspots where human rights allegations have been raised, find details and companies involved” (Business & Human Rights Resource Centre, 2022).
Six of the major metals and minerals mined globally (cobalt, copper, manganese, nickel, lithium and zinc) are included in this tracker allowing users to keep an eye on human rights allegations and encourages investors and those companies at the end of the supply chain to work hand in hand with mining companies to adapt and improve current policies.
The concept of blockchaining has also made its way into the cobalt mining realm in an attempt to address responsible sourcing of cobalt and battery metals. IBM, Ford, LG Chem, Huayou Cobalt and RCS Global have collaborated on a blockchain pilot. As a group they represent the major stages of the cobalt supply chain right from the DRC mine, through the refining and upgrading process in Asia and to the end user in America and Europe. This pilot traces and validates ethically-sourced cobalt, each actor must validate through a set of responsible sourcing standards developed by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) to assess and confirm that each participant meets the obligations outlined by the international governing body (Garrett, 2019). Most significantly this blockchaining works alongside the human element by ensuring “real-world human-led auditing or due diligence obligations. Going to mine sites, refineries and downstream manufacturing entities to assess management systems and operations is still needed to validate responsible practices. But the data gathered during assessments will enable full traceability and transparency” (Garrett, 2019). It is hoped that through efforts such as blockchains it will be possible to build traceable and fully responsible material supply chains, a process which could be replicated across the sector. Though it is easy to always look to large firms and companies to make changes in this regard its easy to forget about the local country and occasionally its former residents. Retired NBA player Dikembe Mutombo, who was originally from the DRC, set up the firm Bluetech which now invests in blockchain to provide traceability in both private and public mines across the DRC (Ledger Insights, 2021) which serves as a reminder that these solutions and firms require the knowledge, understanding and passion of local residents and those who are deeply connected to the nation in question in order to work as effectively as possible. This is evidenced by the Re|Source group, made up of a collection of various companies associated with the production of electric vehicles and their elements, who have also begun a blockchain pilot with a twist as it combines blockchaining with tracking greenhouse gas emissions due to association with the Global Battery Alliance. This is made yet more remarkable as the entire system was initiated by the miners themselves instead of by tech companies at the end of the supply line (Ledger Insights, 2021).
Nickel & Lithium Mining
Nickel and lithium mining face many similar challenges to cobalt mining yet garner far less media attention as for the most part they fly under the public radar with the majority of consumers blissfully unaware of the environmental damage associated with mining these precious materials. As a quick recap from the first paper in this series we chose to take a closer look at the Philippines and Mongolia who dominate the nickel and lithium production landscape respectively. Both nations have seen a significant increase in demand and are attempting to meet the needs of a changing world as electric vehicles begin to dominate roads across the globe. Yet, the experiences of the miners and the local populations in and around these mines have been mixed with some companies investing in the local economy, improving access to education and infrastructure whilst providing much needed jobs as can be observed in the Philippines. Meanwhile, in Mongolia the story has been very different as mines exploit natural water sources thereby endangering the lives and livelihoods of local nomadic herdsmen and their families. However, no matter where you look the environment and those flora and fauna which inhabit the surrounding areas of mines are experiencing degradation at an unprecedented level leaving numerous fragile ecosystems hanging by a thread.
The question, how clean can the nickel industry become, continues to ring in the ears of tech companies who appear to be scrabbling around trying to find any nickel mining company that can prove its methods are efficient and environmentally sensitive. It is obvious from Elon Musk’s statements regarding these requirements that there is both significant consumer backing for more sustainably sourced nickel as well as corporate interest in making such transitions (Azevedo et al., 2020). This has led to companies employing ESG metrics to decipher both the starting point of mines and which policies they need to implement in order to meet set standards. “The current challenge is to nearly double supply while meeting environmental, social, and corporate governance (ESG) requirements… Depending on the specific circumstances, every mining method, processing route, and type of generated waste will bring its own challenges for meeting ESG requirements” (Azevedo et al., 2020). Much of the difficulties associated with mining nickel is to do with its complex extraction process. Something which Tanzania’s Kabanga project hopes to change.
Despite its ‘green’ reputation as a key element of the lithium-ion batteries which furnish electric vehicles the pyromettalurgy process which extracts nickel through smelting has “a global warming potential (GWP) of 13kg of co2 for every kilogramme produced” (Shadbolt, 2021). Due to legacy infrastructure this has been the process of choice for many suppliers, however, hydromettalurgy appears to be stepping forward to take its place. The use of aqueous, or water based solutions, is not new it could be a game changer for this carbon intensive industry. Across Canada, Finland, South Korea, Australia, China and Indonesia investment is pouring in to open new processing plants yet the one at the top of everyone’s list is the Kabanga nickel project. Unlike most mines which ship raw material on to the global north for refining and processing the Kabanga project aims to have all this occur right inside Tanzania using the hydromet procedure. “The carbon footprint using this process is expected to be less than half that of conventional pyromet projects and one-tenth that of Indonesia’s nickel pig iron kilns. The latter has long been the main focus of criticism of the nickel industry’s carbon footprint” (Shadbolt, 2021). Not only that but the project aims to source the expertise and skilled labour needed to run the mine and refinery from the local population as opposed to importing skilled labour from abroad. This will not only ensure that finance stays within the region but may also help to avoid some of the prior issues associated with internationally owned mines such exploitation of mine workers, a lack of health and safety regulations and child labour.
Lithium, another major componant of lithium-ion batteries, has a similarly complex extraction method which casts a dark cloud over the clean energy transition which it is supposed to be a key contributor to. “Lithium is currently sourced mainly from hard rock mines… or underground brine reservoirs below the surface of dried lake beds... Hard rock mining – where the mineral is extracted from open pit mines and then roasted using fossil fuels – leaves scars in the landscape, requires a large amount of water and releases 15 tonnes of CO2 for every tonne of lithium. The other conventional option, extracting lithium from underground reservoirs, relies on even more water to extract the lithium – and it takes place in typically very water-scarce parts of the world, leading to indigenous communities questioning their sustainability” (Early, 2020). With such extraction methods so damaging to the environment and to indigenous communities numerous firms have been on the look out for something more sustainable. It may be possible that this has been found in the extraction of lithium from geothermal waters which has a comparitively tiny environmental footprint. Through geothermal engineering projects such as that seen at the United Downs Deep Geothermal Power Project there are hopes to use the same hot water that contains the lithium to provide zero-carbon heat and power. The technological advances which have paved the way for newer more sustainable lithium extraction methods could shape the future of clean energy and automobiles but it may still be a few years before batteries made using zero-emission lithium is powering our electric vehicles.
In those locations where the extraction of lithium through geothermal waters is not possible those mines which are continuing to carry out hard-rock mining are looking to find new ways to make their production methods more eco friendly. In Clayton Valley, Nevada, Snow Lake Lithium is developing the world’s first all-electric lithium mine. With perfect proximity to key railways this critical resource will have a direct and efficient route onto the North American market for electric vehicle manufacturing, thus reducing supply chain emissions and timing issues. Snow Lake will be run through 98% renewable hydroelectric power and will have no trucks or diesel emissions on site (Lewis, 2022). Their methods of finding new ways to offset those emissions associated with the mining process is just the kind of forward thinking innovations all mining companies should be looking to in the near future.
Lithium mining has been hotly debated as the various processes vye for top spot as the most environmentally friendly method, luckily, “both the public and private sectors are making big commitments to clean up the lithium supply chain and enabling sustainable, scalable, and profitable approaches to lithium mining” (Peichel, 2021). Presently, lithium mines will continue to struggle with sustainability and community-acceptance challenges and whilst certain projects may find themselves in a geographically beneficial position these circumstances are not readily transferable to other regions or countries. The advances being made vary in time frame for implementation, have uncertain technical costs and environmental impacts meaning a likely trafeoff with sustainability for the foreseeable future (Graham et al., 2021).
One of the final solutions to the challenges currently being faced by cobalt, nickel and lithium miners is to alleviate the pressure of demand. Something which could be achieved through recycling as projects setting out to reclaim cobalt and lithium from lithium-ion batteries begin to mushroom across the global north mines may hopefully experience a slight reduction in demand. The most significant challenge facing the reclamation projects is its cost effectiveness and logistics i.e. collecting, storing and transporting discarded lithium-ion batteries. Across the UK, US and Japan various initiatives have been put into place in order to recover the most metal/minerals in the most efficient way. Most of these projects remain in their infancy, however, the cogs have been turning and Japanese company Sumitomo seem close to a break through as they recently announced a newly developed method for melting down spent electric vehicle batteries and recovering the cobalt (Nogrady, 2020). We must hope that “the advent of a less complex, safer battery that is cheaper to make and easier to separate at the end of its life is the ultimate answer to the current sustainability problem with EVs. But until such a battery makes an appearance, standardising Lithium battery recycling is a significant move in the right direction… and in about 2025, when millions of EV batteries reach the end of their initial life cycles, a streamlined recycling process will look much more appealing to economies the world over. So perhaps, by the time EVs become the predominant form of transport, there will be a good chance their batteries will be gearing up for a second life” (Hirschlag, 2022).
Conclusion
There is no denying that the large scale mining of cobalt, lithium and nickel will continue to damage the natural world for the foreseeable future. Whilst scientists and innovators spend years on projects aimed at reducing the emissions and environmental destruction associated with mining, these precious resources remain in environmental purgatory. Key to the green energy transition in the transport sector, these precious metals/minerals are currently our only option to supply the huge demand for lithium-ion electric vehicle batteries required to move away from dirty fossil fueled vehicles. However, the extensive list of negative consequences threatens to undo the positive impacts they might have. With significant loss of biodiversity, environmental degredation and human exploitation it remains difficult to place these products and the processes used to attain them under the ethical umbrella. Yet hope remains as mining companies turn to renewable electrics, less intensive methods, increased use of biproducts and blockchaining. For a cobalt, nickel or lithium mine to succeed in being as sustainable as possible, thereby having a knock on effect to the entire supply chain, every aspect of the process must be accounted for. From ensuring that a miner has sufficient income and safe working conditions to reducing the use of local water supplies and increasing the efficiency of the supply chain. The greatest challenge moving forward is ensuring the sustainable development of mineral mines and the surrounding areas whilst preparing for the future by researching and innovating new methods to recycle these precious materials and solidifying a system through which limited resources such as these become part of the circular economy.
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