Biodiversity in Africa - A Mini Report on the State of Biodiversity Across the African Continent and Beyond

Written By Kate Martin

Introduction

When we discuss biodiversity, it is only natural to start picturing the immense, magnificent, distinctive, and diverse flora and fauna of the African continent. Over such a vast area the challenges posed by climate change, a sharp increase in consumption both in Africa and beyond, and a boom in urbanisation and population size can seem insurmountable. The face of Africa is changing, as cities fill with skyscrapers, industry is expanding and cultures and cuisines from across the continent have gained new found popularity across the globe. Yet, whilst African nations are finding their feet on the international stage and continuing to contend with the damage done by decades of colonisation and oppression, followed by sporadic civil wars, violence, further civil unrest, and a high number of fragile economies it is easy to see how biodiversity took a backseat. In the pursuit of modernisation and development African governments and businesses, like so many others across the globe, have either been forced or were willing to trade in the health of the natural world for monetary gain. Today this is changing, as many nations see the importance of the natural world and have in numerous regions become leaders in conservation and innovation linked to protecting biodiversity. This mini report will provide an overview of how our presence is impacting on the natural world and present four regional case studies; Kenya, Namibia, Nigeria, and Madagascar to better illustrate biodiversity in a national context. 

The State of Biodiversity in Africa

“Africa is immensely rich in biodiversity. Its living organisms comprise around a quarter of global biodiversity and it supports the earth’s largest intact assemblages of large mammals, which roam freely in many countries” (UNEP, 2016). At least one-sixth of the world’s plant species are native to Africa and the continent currently boasts 369 wetlands of national importance. Africa also holds one-sixth of the world’s remaining forests, the most important of which, the Congo rainforest/basin absorbs 4% of global carbon emissions every year and offsets more than the entire African continent’s annual emissions, stretches 240-million-hectares and sustains the livelihoods of 80 million people in the region (Africa Centre for Strategic Studies, 2022). Africa now faces immense challenges in reconciling human well-being with environmental and economic prosperity. To overcome these challenges governments and stakeholders as well as the general population must all be engaged in collaborative efforts which help to build the capacity of governments and organisations to support sustainable development in Africa. The pressures placed on biodiversity in Africa are manifold, with numerous species as well as marine and terrestrial habitats being threatened or lost entirely. Africa continues to experience deforestation and forest degradation on top of the various impacts of climate change. Human behaviour, particularly in the form of armed conflict has at times devastated biodiversity as 70% of protected areas in Africa were touched by war between 1946 and 2010 with the number of elephants, hippos, giraffes and other large mammals cliff-edging as militants and hungry citizens turned to hunting wild animals for bushmeat and financing the conflict through commodities such as ivory (Dorsouma, 2020). However, African nations are stepping up to the plate in response to the rapid depletion of biodiversity through a mixture of increasing the use of ecosystem-based conservation and restoration of natural resources, turning to ecotourism and investing in ecosystem services. 

“Declines in Africa’s rich ecological biodiversity threaten millions of livelihoods, increased food insecurity, conflicts over land, and transmission of zoonotic diseases that can lead to more pandemics” (Africa Centre for Strategic Studies, 2022). The lives and livelihoods of a considerable number of African people are intrinsically linked to nature with 62% of Africa’s rural population relying on the continent’s diverse natural ecosystems for food, water, energy health and to secure a living. In an IPCC report which crossed 11 countries it was found that 21% of rural household income is provided by natural forests and that wild-harvested food (including fisheries) contribute to the health and diet of millions of Africans (Africa Centre for Strategic Studies, 2022). Unfortunately, Africa’s biodiversity is in steep decline with estimates suggestions that “climate change could contribute to the loss of over half of African bird and mammal species as well as triggering a 20%–30% decline in lake productivity (the plant and animal life produced by a lake)” (The World Bank, 2019). “More than one million species of plants and animals… are threatened with extinction, 40 percent of amphibian species, and 33 percent of reef-forming corals are endangered” (Dorsouma, 2020). The lethal mix of natural habitat loss, degradation, overexploitation of wildlife and fisheries, illegal poaching and the spread of invasive non-indigenous species is having ramifications for the human populous as well as people’s livelihoods can be wiped out, water supplies can dry up, food insecurity rises and resilience to extreme events. “The changing climate is predicted to be one of the worst drivers for the loss of biodiversity over the next 50–100 years” (Dorsouma, 2022). Biodiversity could be said to be the engine of socioeconomic development in Africa, hence, efforts are now underway to bolster biodiversity and work in harmony with nature to ensure a prosperous future for all who inhabit the African continent. 

Across Africa nations have been working on bolstering biodiversity through the expansion of protected areas (14% of the nations landmass and 2.6% of the seas) (IPBES, 2018), meanwhile, a range of protections have been put in place for sites of unique natural importance such as wetlands, extinction sites, important bird and biodiversity areas, ecologically and biologically significant marine areas, community conserved areas and Biosphere reserves. There is also a concerted effort being made by governments and policymakers to engage local and Indigenous communities in order to take advantage of Indigenous and traditional knowledge systems. The unique insights of these communities offers up a range of benefits from supplementing insufficient scientific information on various species and ecosystems to helping with the management of natural resources. At a national level many countries have developed national biodiversity strategies and action plans and are reaching out to create regional treaties on the environment. Though it is useful to have an overview of how Africa as a whole is approaching biodiversity loss it is all important to zoom in on individual nations to see how they are tackling the conservation crisis… 

Kenya

Kenya is recognised globally as a hub for biodiversity with tourists from around the world flocking to the national parks en-masse to catch a glimpse of the rare and magnificent creatures which call this region home. With a mixture of African elephant, black rhino, leopard, buffalo and the African lion, the large mammals of Kenya put the nation on the map and according to Kenya’s 6th National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (2020), Kenya is home to 4,623 plant species, 393 mammals, 260 reptile and amphibian species, 1,105 birds and 769 fish species making it the place to be for all ecotourists (EU Interactive Country Fiches, 2022). The diverse range of habitats in Kenya range from mountain forests to extensive grasslands to rich wetlands which cover 2.5% of the country’s total area (EU Interactive Country Fiches, 2022), all of which house the backbone of Kenya’s economy with 42% of the country’s GDP being derived from natural resources which sustain practices in: agriculture, livestock production, energy production (through hydroelectric developments), fisheries and tourism which contributed 10% to GDP in 2017 (EU Interactive Country Fiches, 2022). Though biodiversity remains relatively protected in Kenya numerous conservation challenges remain in both protected and unprotected areas. However, it has been nearly two decades since large scale biodiversity assessments took place making it both difficult to assess the current state of biodiversity in the region whilst also making it all the more important that such an assessment is carried out in the near future. Globally, Kenya is categorised as one of ten mega-biodiverse nations with over 35,000 species of flora and fauna (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2023), however, with the looming climate crisis Kenya could easily fall off this list. 

So, what are the threats to Kenyan biodiversity? Well as always it is a mixture of key factors;

  • High population pressure (the population has grown from 47.6 million people in 2019 to an estimated 54.986 million people in 2021 (EU Interactive Country Fiches, 2022), 

  • Escalating poverty and conflicts (Many live below US $1.00/day with no alternative means of livelihood, this forces many to turn to the use and overexploitation of natural resources in fragile ecosystems),

  • Poor land use practices i.e. using the land incompatibility with the wildlife by expanding crop cultivation along the rainfall gradient, building high density settlements, putting up fences or mining an quarrying, clearing woodland, draining wetlands and increasing the number of livestock,

  • Inadequate laws, policies, and institutional framework,

  • Poor education and inadequate involvement of the community, 

  • The introduction of invasive species,

  • Land degradation and pollution,

  • Human encroachment and the development of hotels and infrastructure, particularly linked to tourism, into fragile marine and coastal areas (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2023). 

  • Water scarcity,

  • Habitat fragmentation and lack of habitat connectivity, 

  • Pollution,

  • Poaching, overfishing and uncontrolled harvesting of plant and animal species (EU Interactive Country Fiches, 2022). 

Water, both fresh and salt, is a significant area of interest when focusing on biodiversity in Kenya. The mangrove forests, estuaries and deltas, sand dunes, beaches, coral reefs, and seagrass beds which provide some of the most valuable coastal and marine resources for the people of Kenya are coming under significant pressure which is having serious ramifications for those who rely on these areas for their livelihoods but also on the endangered species such as dugongs and turtles which call the mangroves, reeds and seagrass beds their home (Nairobi Convention, 2023). The rivers and great lakes of Kenya have for the most part managed to fly under the radar, yet like to so many similar ecosystems they are suffering, particularly as water becomes more elusive and the government sets plans to expand hydropower energy which will create a domino effect of disruption and it is clear that trade-offs will be made between development and biodiversity protection in the future. Nevertheless, understanding the potential conflicts which will occur from biodiversity and development can help decision makers to ensure that they effectively manage the fallout and work to ensure future biodiversity protection (Jenkins et al., 2021). It is clear that there are many challenges to overcome, however, Kenya is working to address these issues through a variety of programmes and the introduction of more protected spaces. 

Kenya has developed several national policies, legislation, regulations, and guidelines as legal instruments for governance in the conservation and management of the country’s biodiversity. The country has also ratified a number of international agreements on biodiversity such as the Convention on Biological Diversity. “Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) are sites of global biodiversity conservation importance that are chosen using internationally agreed objective, quantitative and scientifically defensible criteria” (Nature Kenya, 2023). Kenya currently has 67 KBA’s based on Important Bird Areas (IBA’s) which cover all the key habitat types in Kenya, unfortunately, only 30 of the KBA’s currently have protection while 36 do not. Responsibility for carrying forward these agreements and policies falls to various institutions and on a national and county level. The current lack of unified and integrated policies that stretch across the nation present new challenges in conflicting legislation and can easily jeopardise key ecosystems when people are not even working from the same book let alone the same page. However, Kenya remains ambitions and tenacious in its aims for biodiversity in particular in its plans to increase the country’s forest cover by 10% which will provide improved habitat for Kenya’s land-based biodiversity (EU Interactive Country Fiches). For Kenya it is clear that there is a will on almost every level to protect and conserve biodiversity, the difficulty lies instead with the implementation.

Namibia

Namibia is something of a mystery to much of the world. It is the driest nation in Sub-Saharan Africa and is for the most part sparsely populated, due to the lack of fresh water, making it difficult to sustain a larger population. Namibia has one of the lowest population densities in the world meaning that the human impact on the environment has been correspondingly low which has allowed much of Namibia to remain pristine, unfortunately, this is a situation which is rapidly changing. With a population of 2.5 million people coming from a variety of cultural and linguistic backgrounds Namibia has managed to strategically manage their population and rich mineral resources to help reduce poverty and retain both political and economic stability (The World Bank, 2022; ), no mean feat in a continent that has seen consistent instability for decades. Though it would be easy to picture Namibia as a nation of sand, sparse trees, and sweltering heat the reality is entirely different. Namibia is in fact a biodiversity hotspot which houses the largest free-roaming population of black rhino, elephants and cheetah’s in the world. Yet, Namibia is facing the same biodiversity related pressures caused by; 

  • Climate change, 

  • Landscape fragmentation and degradation i.e. linear structures such as game fences and roads which limit wildlife movements and increase vulnerability to human related mortality (NEWS, 2020), 

  • Unplanned development,

  • Conflicting land-use,

  • Extended, severe droughts, 

  • Poaching,

  • Mining,

  • Growing human development needs, 

  • Increased human-wildlife conflict

  • Increased pressure on natural resources (Convention of biological Diversity, 2023).

  • Unsustainable farming practices (GIZ, 2021)

  • Unsustainable water use,

  • And invasive species (Ministry of Environment and Tourism, 2012).

Despite these burgeoning issues Namibia is one nation that has managed to see a rapid increase in the population size of numerous species spread across both their protected areas (which cover 40% of Namibia’s land area (GIZ, 2021) and the nation as a whole, such as: black rhino, elephant, oryx, springbok, kudu, Hartmann’s zebra and black-faced impala to name but a few. The success of the environment is crucial as 70% of the population relies heavily on natural resource-based livelihoods such as: agriculture, fisheries, nature-based tourism, and indigenous natural plant products ( (GIZ, 2021; Convention of biological Diversity, 2023). The Namibian government is working hard to protect biodiversity in their nation through the implementation of the NBSAP / 2 (National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans) which was a strategic plan of action for sustainable development through biodiversity conservation put in place between 2001-2010 then renewed each decade with an aim to contribute to Namibia’s National Development Goals. They also signed up to the Aichi Targets (2011-2020) and the Southern African Development Community (SADC) Regional Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. 

The emphasis Namibia places on its biodiversity is naturally linked to its reliance on natural resources and healthy ecosystems and the programmes and actions they have put in place to ensure a sustainable future are manifold. Namibia has supported the production and sale of indigenous plants, traditionally used for food, medicine, oils and other products.  “Namibia’s most successful commercially-sold indigenous natural products include those derived from Devil’s Claw, Hoodia, Marula and Commiphora” (Ministry of Environment and Tourism, 2012). Currently the market share of Indigenous natural products stands at around 5% of GDP, however, there is plenty of room for further growth that will benefit rural communities across the country. Namibia has also put in place a flagship programme known as the New National Development Plan (NDP5) which focuses on building a ‘biodiversity economy’ which builds upon sectors such as tourism which depend directly upon biodiversity. The ‘biodiversity economy’ will extend to payments for ecosystems services and biodiversity offsets and will be flanked by sustainable production and consumption measures such as local sourcing of the lodges, labeling etc. will contribute to mitigation efforts (GIZ, 2021). Though it is clear Namibia is struggling with the human impact on the environment, particularly as people shift from traditional nomadic ways of life to static agriculture and animal husbandry. However, the efforts of the Namibian people and government to protect biodiversity is a cause for hope. 

Nigeria

Nigeria is a nation of great colour and even greater wealth. As the richest and most populous country in Africa (World Population Review, 2021) Nigeria has seen unprecedented levels of growth and a population boom that is presenting a whole host of new challenges for the environment and natural spaces. The unique geographical placement of Nigeria has caused a wide range of ecosystems to sprout up ranging from semi-arid savanna to mountain forests, rich seasonal floodplain environments, rainforests, vast freshwater swamp forests and diverse coastal vegetation. The climatic conditions and variety of physical features has birthed a substantial and rich mixture of flora and fauna. Although Nigeria does not rely on the natural world quite as heavily as some of its African cousins for its overall Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (around 80% of its external earnings come from the oil sector), a substantial proportion of the economy is still based on agriculture and access to natural resources. The agricultural sector contributes about 38% towards the GDP whilst around 70% of the population derives its means of livelihood from agriculture, this figure grows to 90% if one focuses on only rural communities (Akindele et al., 2021). The financial benefits of biodiversity in Nigeria total around $8 billion per annum (Altiparmak, 2022), however, both the agricultural and oil sectors are presenting two of the greatest threats to biodiversity in the region, others include;

  • Habitat destruction linked to farming methods e.g., agricultural intensification practices, including the use of fertilizers and pesticides; increased land drainage; channelization of water courses and the eutrophication of water bodies; reduction in the extent of hedgerows and the loss of farm ponds.

  • Bush burning,

  • Fuel wood collection,

  • Logging,

  • Grazing and gathering,

  • Deforestation (often for cash crops),

  • Poaching and indiscriminate hunting,

  • Unsustainable fishing,

  • Population growth,

  • Deforestation,

  • Forest exploitation (to meet the increasing demands for forest products),

  • Cultural practices,

  • Poor law enforcement,

  • Dam construction,

  • Oil spills,

  • And poverty (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2023). 

Nigeria currently houses a wide range of biodiversity that is unfortunately going into rapid decline. According to a WildAid survey, since 2021 Nigeria has seen the decline of elephants, crocodiles, gorillas, antelope, and chimpanzees whilst certain species such as pangolins, woodland elephants, sea turtles, civets and the African crowned crane are now considered endangered or extinct. Just as Peru is the cocaine capital of the world so too is Nigeria the capital of the illegal wildlife trade as it has become a key transport hub for the transit of ivory and pangolin scales being exported to Asian countries, today Nigeria’s government is working non-stop to seize the products and put a stop to the trade. The reality on the ground is very much that foreign employers are pulling the strings and making huge sums from the illegal wildlife trade both for parts and for pets. For many Nigerian poachers this particular line of work offers up a ready source of finance in a nation with significant levels of socio-economic inequality (Olakitan, 2023). As if outside pressures on Nigeria’s biodiversity were not enough the nations own population has boomed in recent decades and with it has come a new set of pressures on biodiversity as consumption patterns change, urbanisation increases and the human population spreads out, energy needs must be met and more land must be cultivated to feed and maintain the growing populous, all the while the push for development pushes biodiversity out. “Thus the high rate of population growth is crucial among the set of factors that degrade the environment and threaten biodiversity in Nigeria” (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2006). 

Though there is little to be done about growth in the population Nigeria is working to improve the protection of biodiversity in other ways. As previously mentioned, they are taking action against the illegal wildlife trade, however, they also signed up to the Aichi Biodiversity Targets. The government is attempting to put in place protected areas, though this hit something of a bump in the road as traditional hunting grounds of the communities living around these areas became cut off and the government were pushed to compromise and include these communities in wildlife enforcement and conservation and shifting conservation areas to those not being utilised by these communities (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2023). Another controversial approach has been to plough the revenues from hunting and the sale of wildlife trophies back into conservation. “It is worthy of mention that the Gasthia-Gumpti National Park in Nigeria encompasses a range of habitats across a range of altitude from 450m to 4,000m, chimpanzees are among the threatened species that survive in the forest” and they are now working to utilise these protected populations to stimulate economic growth through an expanding ecotourism sector (Anwadike, 2020). There has no doubt been successes such as the implementation of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) which has since been revised to expand the horizons of conservation efforts in the country, however, once again it is not that Nigeria lacks the will to protect its natural spaces it is in part that the implementation is lacking. Illegal wildlife trafficking continues to pass through the Nigerian borders as the facilities to slow or stop the trade are simply not enough, government plans and policies require a more Indigenous approach that recognises the unique offerings of various communities who could aid in bolstering biodiversity, whilst agriculture needs investment to become more sustainable and to find way to utilise less land. 

Madagascar

“Over the last 80 million years in near total isolation, Madagascar has become home to a unique assemblage of wildlife that makes it one of the most biodiverse hotspots on our planet” (Antonelli, 2022). Madagascars ecosystems contain some of the rarest species on earth the vast majority of which are endemic to the region and can be found nowhere else on earth. To step or wade out into the forests, savannah, steppes, rivers, lakes, wetlands, mangroves, drylands, and reefs of Madagascar can feel closer to landing on another planet with creatures so obscure one would hardly believe they were real if we had no tangible proof of their existence. Madagascar boasts “12,000 species of vascular plants (96% of which are endemic), 586 species of ferns (45% endemic), 194 species of palms (97% endemic), 1000 species of orchids (85% endemic), 389 species of reptiles (90% endemic), 278 species of amphibians (100% endemic), 282 species of birds (37% endemic), 159 species of fish (66% endemic), 104 species and subspecies of lemurs (100% endemic), 60 species of non-flying small mammals (92% endemic), 43 species of bats (73% endemic) and 13 species of carnivore (77% endemic)” (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2023). The rich biodiversity of Madascar has like much of Africa led to a high level of dependence on the natural world for subsistence to nourish and treat the 21 million people who call the island home (WWF, 2023). 80% of the population is entirely dependent on natural resources, 70% of which are reliant on resources derived from agriculture or other vegetation. 90% of the 2,300 plants which are used for medicinal purposes have been commercialised, however, traditional healers never had any real impact on the plant life, unfortunately this has begun to change due to the commercialisation process. Medicinal plants in Madagascar represent a significant stream of income, as does ecotourism which is the third large source of foreign currency for the nation and has brought in over $75 million in just five years. Unfortunately, Madagascar has seen some of the highest rates of biodiversity loss on the planet and “because of the country’s high rate of endemism, the loss of one hectare of forest in Madagascar has a larger effect on biodiversity than forest loss elsewhere in the world” (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2023). Though deforestation for agriculture, charcoal production, energy, mining as well as coral reef degradation present some of the most significant threats to Madagascar’s biodiversity other pressures include;

  • Destructive human practices i.e. clearing nature habitats at a rate of around 0.55% per year,

  • Overexploitation of natural resources,

  • Climate change (most visible in the marine life),

  • Poverty (80% of the population live under the poverty line (WWF, 2023),

  • Inappropriate/Non-exhistant policies,

  • Insufficient resources,

  • Lack of the coordination by actors operating in the sector and limited training for those actors,

  • Poor management of agricultural resources,

  • Soil degradation,

  • Land insecurity,

  • Low valuation of traditional agricultural practices,

  • Changing food habits (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2023),

  • Illegal wildlife trade (WWF, 2023),

  • And hunting (European Commission, 2023)

Overexploitation and unsustainable agricultural practices threaten between 56.8% and 62.1% of vertebrates and endanger 90% of all plant species (Antonelli, 2022). To add another layer of pressure the rare and unique flora and fauna of Madagascar fetch a high price on the illegal wildlife market with the most rare of species such as the Ploughshare tortoise going for $200,000 on the exotic pet market (WWF, 2023).  The animals which are overexploited are often lucky to come out alive as wild meat continues to provide a significant portion of the local diet, providing important sources of protein, fat, and micronutrients. The EU funded Sustainable Wildlife Management (SWM) Programme is working with communities to reduce reliance on bush meat and to make more sustainable swaps to backyard poultry and fish farming, they are also transforming wild meat consumption hunters into conservationists. This is just one of the many efforts being made to protect biodiversity in Madagascar (European Commission, 2023). Botanical institutions such as Kew have spent vast quantities of time classifying and safeguarding various species from extinction ex situ and are now working in situ with the Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre and other actors in the region to provide further support and conservation funding (Antonelli, 2022). Meanwhile, the WWF has taken on the illegal wildlife trade in Madagascar, working closely with the government, scientists, industry and local communities in several areas to secure a future for the islands species. One project is working alongside “fishermen and and the government to manage marine and coastal resources so that they not only contribute to conservation but also benefit local communities”. Whilst in another region the WWF is helping “decision makers, technical officers, and local authorities to develop and implement responsive strategies to protect local communities and natural ecosystems from the expected impacts of climate change” (WWF, 2023). Re:wild also now has boots on the ground with an aim to protect the remaining areas of intact natural forest with a look to restoring them in the future. Reforestation is at the top of Re:wild’s list of priorities alongside supporting and implementing conservation action for lemurs and promoting ecotourism as a way to protect the forests while improving the livelihoods of local communities (Mayer, 2023). The Madagascan government is also signed up to the Convention on Biological Diversity targets which they are gradually achieving, particularly in creating more Protected areas which they are looking to increase from the current 10.4% to 13% (Ralimanana, 2022). It is clear that the next decade, even the new few years are going to be critical for protecting many of Madagascars rare and endangered endemic species.

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Kate Martin
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