Biodiversity in the Middle East - A Mini Report on the State of Biodiversity Across the Middle East
Introduction
If you were to conjure up an image in your mind of the Middle East you might picture camels, lush green oasis, rolling sand dunes and Bedouin nomads trekking through the desert in search of elusive water sources. An image like this can feel more like the backdrop to a Lawrence of Arabia style film than a true representation of the modern day Middle East where the contrasts are sharper than ever. From traditional subsistence to luxury lifestyles the Middle East has it all and the transformation of the region has happened in the blink of eye. Yet, with this rapid change there has also been a marked decline in biodiversity across the Middle East and this is naturally cause for concern. The region has been home to some of the most significant empires in history and has in many ways transformed our understanding of the world around us as great Arab scholars have researched and produced works in mathematics, science and literature. Today, they must channel their efforts into a new field of work; the conservation of the natural world, particularly those fragile ecosystems in the Middle East which are hanging on by a thread. This mini report will provide an overview of how our presence is impacting on the natural world and present four regional case studies; Saudi Arabia, Iran, Israel and Palestine to better illustrate biodiversity in a national context.
The State of Biodiversity in the Middle East
Human civilisations have risen and fallen for thousands of years across the Middle East making it one of the longest inhabited regions in the world (Shulman, 2020). As humanity has spread out and adapted the land to meet the needs of a growing population there has been a corresponding increase in biodiversity loss which remained relatively steady until recent times when rapid urbanisation, overgrazing, climate change, water scarcity and the ongoing religious, political and military conflicts have had and are continuing to have serious ramifications for biodiversity and the natural world. Climate change, pollution, conservation and biodiversity transcends boundries which can present challenges in regions where boundaries are set in stone and are often the source of fierce infighting. Though it is important to take note of the violent conflicts which are taking place in the Middle East and the political and socio-economic instability in the region which are contributing to the loss in biodiversity this report would urge readers to recognise that we must collectively put aside our differences and work as one to protect the natural world. No matter ones political, religious, cultural and social affiliations we all bare responsibility for the natural world which transcends our differences. Not only by reminding us of our common humanity and interests but also in providing a common aim, which necessitates compromise, a willingness to work together and set aside our often petty conflicts in order to conserve the natural resources and fragile ecosystems upon which we all rely.
In 2010 the “Environment Outlook for the Arab Region… identified 1,084 threatened species; with 24 per cent of fish, 22 per cent of birds, and 20 per cent of mammals in the region threatened with extinction” (Habr, 2010). Just five years later, “according to the 2015 IUCN Red List, approximately 2476 species in MENA (Middle East and North Africa) are under threat comprising of mammals, fishes, birds, mollusc, amphibians, reptiles, and other species. 28% of threatened species comprises of fishes, 18% plants, 12% birds, 9% mammals and rest others” (Zafar, 2022). This data though covering somewhat different areas of the Middle East, a term which is in itself subjective, does provide a relatively comprehensive overview of the current state of biodiversity in the region and highlights some of the most alarming trends in biodiversity decline. As West Asia is currently experiencing one of the most significant jumps in urban population growth worldwide the pressures placed on nature to meet the needs of a baby boom paired with significant rural to urban migration has possibly already pushed some ecosystems over the edge as some habitats are already showing signs of irreversible collapse as they go beyond their ecological thresholds (Habr, 2010), something people have now been seeing and experiencing for over a decade. Some of the most recognisable symbols of Middle Eastern biodiversity are now considered threatened species such as the “Arabian Gazelle, Arabian Tahr, Arabian Oryx, Bunn’s Short Tailed Bandicoot Rat, Buxton’s Jird, Dahl’s Jird, Durcas Gazelle, Euphrate Jerboa, Four toed Jebora, Golden Hamster, Nubian Ibex, Persian Fallow Deer and Slender Horn Gazelle, Aden Gulf Torpedo, Ala Balik, Burdur Spring Minnow, Cave fish, Damascus Garra, Pale Dotty Back, Yag Baligi, Scrapper, Spotted Bleak, Tuz Golden Barb, Yarkon Bream, Arabian Woodpecker, Island Cisticole, Jouanin’s Petrel, Socotra Bunting, Yemen Accentor, Yemen Thrush, Yemen Warbler” (Zafar, 2022) to name but a few. The outlook is similarly bleak for reptiles and amphibians which are also coming under increased human pressure. The impacts of human presence and behaviours these creatures feel varies from one area to the next, however, one does not need to look far to work out the core reasons behind species numbers going off a cliff.
If we take a quick trip back into history we find the Sykes-Picot Agreement which arbitrarily divided much of the Middle East into spheres of British and French interest and in so doing sowed seeds of discontent and caused a ripple effect of resentment and divisions that continue to plague the region to this day. Like tectonic plates crashing into one another the diving lines between Arab nations have had disastrous reverberations as everything from political and economic instability to all our wars have cast their dark shadows over the region for decades. However, in large part due to the discovery of oil and other natural resources the Middle East has also began to experience a level of prosperity and in some areas peace which may at times have been difficult to imagine. Unfortunately, the natural world has born the brunt of war, instability, peace and prosperity in the Middle East. With increased wealth old cultural practices such as the keeping of exotic, wild and often rare animals as pets has fed into the illegal wildlife trade and significantly disturbed the natural patterns of these creatures lives i.e. nutrition, health, reproduction and even lifespan. Oil, the source of the new found wealth has also increased pollution in everything from vehicle exhausts to industrial waste ending up in marine environments, to say nothing of the devastation wrought by oil spills. With more money and more mouths to feed agriculture has also changed pace, allowing pesticides to seep into natural water sources which are already being depleted through a mixture of climate change, human consumption and industrial farming. As the land dries further desertification has set in and soil quality has been significantly reduced. Overfishing, overhunting, overgrazing and poaching continue to decimate species populations. The culmination of all these issues may appear to be ecosystems that are barely hanging on or have gone into freefall whilst the population of the Middle East races to to the top of the financial tower with little thought as to how their behaviour is impacting the world around them. Yet, this couldn’t be further from the truth. Conservation efforts are widespread and growing, governments are beginning to implement protection policies and in some corners communities are crossing the cultural divide in support of a greater goal to see natural spaces thrive once again in the Middle East.
Saudi Arabia
This nation state equivalent to the Forbidden City is for most outside of the Middle East or for those who lack connections to the region a country solely understood through the lens of stereotypes. Sand dunes, little water, enormous wealth and a society built upon deeply held religious beliefs are just a few of these stereotypes and this can leave little room in peoples minds to consider the biodiversity of the tenth largest nation on the planet. “There are 2,250 species of flowering plants in Saudi Arabia of which some 246 species are considered regionally endemic. About 450 species (18%) of flowering plants have direct benefits to human beings and 45 species (1.8%) are poisonous. Some 334 species (13.4%) are used in folk medicine or are known to have medicinal value. There are 93 mammal species, 432 bird species, 9 freshwater fish species, 103 reptiles and 7 amphibians found in Saudi Arabia” (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2023). Saudi Arabia, like much of the Middle East, straddles the the climates of Africa and Eurasia, which has given rise to a rather unique blend of flora and fauna who rely on the relative stability of said climatic conditions, particularly in the case of those 300 birds (Amlôt, 2020) who stop off in or commence their migrations in Saudi Arabia (Alatawi, 2022). In fact bird migration is one of the most significant aspects of biodiversity in Saudi Arabia as 27 million pairs of birds from more than 200 different species brave the harsh conditions and come to Saudi Arabia each year to breed making the protection of these winged desert nomads all the more important (Amlôt, 2020). “Around 33% of the Kingdom’s plant and animal species are formally listed as threatened with extinction, with perhaps 70% of the plant and animal populations decreasing” (Boland, 2021). The losses are most acute for the nations 12 largest wild mammals which are all either considered endangered or have gone extinct (Amlôt, 2022). The sheer fact that creatures are going extinct in a state which is home to so many rare endemic species that are found no where else on earth whilst continuing to discover new species in the more remote regions of the kingdom is a major cause for concern as we could be losing plants and creatures we had no idea even existed and could push ecosystems past the point of recovery without even realising that we have done so. The drastic decline in biodiversity across Saudi Arabia and the destabilisation of its key ecosystems can be put down to a mixture of key factors;
Habitat destruction and fragmentation,
Over-grazing,
Over-hunting,
Climate change,
Intensive modern agricultural practices,
Pollution
Urbanisation,
Invasive Species (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2023),
Limited availability for conservation resources in remote areas due to harsh desert conditions,
Poaching,
Lack of public awareness (Alatawi, 2022),
Falconry,
Overfishing (Radwan, 2022),
And coastal reclamation (around 40% of Saudi Arabia’s coastal reclamation has resulted in the destruction of around 50% of its mangroves) (Zafar, 2022).
Though Saudi Arabia faces many challenges in relation to protecting biodiversity it has not shied away from reality and is in fact, for a country that just decades ago had little concept of conservation, now working hard to turn things around and “provide safe passage” even for those creatures who only call the region home for a short period of time. Saudi Arabia’s conservation efforts have been well documented, this may in part be due to the heavy influence oil and energy companies have had over these efforts as part of their wider greenwashing campaigns, however, what this rich source of information does give us is a more clear understanding of the kingdom’s conservation efforts as a whole and provides an insight into what is driving conservation in the region. Aramco, Saudi Arabia’s Oil Group is a prime example of this strange relationship forming between the world’s biggest emitters and conservation efforts and agencies. Aramco has taken the step of designating 977 km2 in 10 Biodiversity Protection Areas which as of 2021 house 500 species of plant and animal life, 55 native sub/species and 30% of all recorded terrestrial mammal species in the Abha protected area alone (Boland, 2021). Aramco now protects and funds the conservation of some of Arabia’s rarest species and the company is, at least in this regard keeping itself accountable through continuing rigorous biodiversity surveys which ensure that they meet their goals. Though there is obviously much good coming from Aramco’s efforts to decrease direct human impacts on the survival of Saudi Arabia’s flora and fauna we must also take the time to recognise that climate change, particularly searing heatwaves, present one of the most serious threats to the regions biodiversity and this an issue directly linked to the exploitation of natural resources such as oil, so in essence Aramco is putting a sticking plaster over a wound.
That said there are a plethora of other conservation efforts taking place. During Saudi Arabia’s environment week the Ministry of Environment, Water and Agriculture set up a programme to improve community awareness on the importance of biodiversity, the environment and conservation. The Tabuk branch of the ministry held presentations on conserving the ecological system and halting biodiversity loss. Universities held conferences and introduced new courses and research opportunities linked to biodiversity and wildlife conservation. Meanwhile, special centers, such as the Prince Saud Al Faisal Wildlife Research Centre, visited universities, schools, and other institutions to raise awareness about the Arabian leopard (Alatawi, 2022). In a country known for filtering the views of outsiders looking in, the kingdom has been open and willing to work with organisations such as the IUCN whom they embarked on an ambitious five year partnership with in 2019 to transform nature conservation and protected areas management in the country (IUCN, 2019). The National Commision for Wildlife Conservation and Development has also being doing its part, particularly in rewilding and reintroducing species whilst backing the Kingdom’s afforestation initiative and the mangrove planting section of the Saudi Green Initiative (Radwan, 2022). Some of the most notable success stories have been that of the reintroduction of three endangered species, the Arabian Oryx, Arabian Sand Gazelle, and the Common Ostrich, were recently reintroduced into Saudi Aramco’s wildlife sanctuary at Shaybah (Amlôt, 2020). A group of creatures which once roamed Saudi Arabia in large numbers and which will we hope begin to do so once again. For a nation that has such wealth and so many resources at it’s fingertips Saudi Arabia could have real clout in the biodiversity sector, yet, it is also a nation caught in a vicious circle of oil production and climate change which could make parts of their nation uninhabitable for both humans and animals. At a time of year that is so important for people and communities across the Middle East this mini report also serves as a reminder that as our planet warms and some of the most sacred aspects of religious life such as Hajj (the Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca) are jeopardised we must ask the question, when will Saudi Arabia look to match its climate change efforts with those conservation efforts which it has already shown itself so capable and successful in.
Iran
Despite the dustbowl stereotypes of Iran the geography of the eighteenth largest nation on earth can vary wildly and allow inhabitants to experience all four seasons all year round. “From summer in the southern and northern parts of the country by the sea (the Caspian Sea in the north and the Persian Gulf in south), to winter in the snowy mountains of the west” (Reside, 2023), Iran’s unique blend of climates and topography has given rise to a vast array of endemic flora and fauna, whilst providing a suitable stopping point for the migration of various bird species from abroad. Some of Iran’s most crucial ecosystems are its 10,000 hectares of Avicenna mangroves (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2015), its ancient semi-humid forests which provide 47% of fresh water to around 4 million people who are to this day relaint on the woodlands for their livelihoods and food security, without which it would be impossible to survive in certain regions (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2015). Meanwhile, Iran is also home to 41 wetland types which makes it one of 20 countries rich in both biodiversity and genetics (Bakhtiari, 2021). Each unique economic zone houses numerous species, many of which are endemic to the region. With 8,000 species of plants (of which 1,900 are endemic), 535 species of birds, 197 species of mammals and 870 species of fish it is clear that Iran has a wealth of biodiversity at its fingertips, yet like almost every other nation on earth Iran is also experiencing a decline in its biodiversity and are now attempting to carve out new paths in conservation and protection. The assortment of issues which plague Iran’s biodiversity are complex, sometimes politically sensitive and owing to those sensitivities the available information relating to these difficulties is not always as comprehensive as it could be. Just a few of the pressures placed on biodiversity in Iran are;
Water scarcity; Iran faces serious water shortage, its scarcity in Iran is the result of two mechanisms: inadequate natural water supply resources and development of water infrastructures.
Land degradation; Soil loss is related to the salination, sedimentation, erosion of the soil, desertification, deforestation, inadequate land-use planning, and overgrazing.
Air Pollution; Rapid urbanisation, paired with increasing vehicle emissions and industrial effluents has become a serious environmental and public health hazard concern.
Dust storms; An issue which has gone from the local to the national in recent years and is often found to be spreading from neighbouring countries (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2015).
Land use change has caused the fragmention/loss of habitats and deforestation/damage to the quality of existing forests (Reside, 2023; Bakhtiari, 2021),
US Sanctions; Santions can be catalysts for environmental issues as they continue to isolate Iranian conservationists from their international counterparts making it more difficult to protect endangered species. Conservation efforts also become low priority as sanctions force states into survival mode that does not allow for long-term environmental planning. Sanctions reduce or cut off financial support for biodiversity research and conservation interventions and limit the internation transferral of knowledge upon which many conservation efforts rely. Sanctions reduce the conservation budget leaving authorities with fewer resources to control protected areas which can lead to hunting, poaching and illegal exploitation of natural habitats (Walker, 2019).
Iran is facing challenges which may at first appear insurmountable, particularly those related to international sanctions, yet conservationists are continuing to push forward, even in difficult circumstances, to continue to protect the natural world and wild spaces upon which so much of the Iranian population rely. Progress has been gradual but both the government and private sector have taken measures to conserve biodiversity. The Iranian government recently committed to expanding the existing conservation areas which cover 11% of the country to 20%. Such a substantial increase could maximise the number of species protected for years to come and would be enormously beneficial to the region. The areas set to be protected are of high priority mainly due to their containing vulnerable, threatened and endangered endemic species and it is believed that if Iran is able to protect 20% of its land , “more than 70% of the distribution of fish, amphibians, reptiles and endemic birds would be protected, and up to 45% of all birds and mammals” (Reside, 2023). There are also efforts to expand the number of rangers protecting these spaces from 2000 to 7,300 (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2015), this increased surveilance of protected areas will not only help to reduce nefarious activity such as illegal hunting and poaching but will also help in keeping a more accurate logue of species population sizes. Unlike some other countries which may lack community support or public awareness of biodiversity the Iranian people have historically enjoyed a close relationship with nature even taking time out during Nowruz (Persian New Year) festival to go out and celebrate the friendship between people and nature. Both the government and various organisations such as UNESCO, UNDP and the IUCN have been able to harness this public support and channel it into successful projects such as the Asiatic Cheetah Conservation Project and the Multi-Use Forest Management Framework for the Hyrcanian Forest Landscape (Jowker et al., 2016; Ghalali, 2022). Conservationists in Iran are some of the most resilient, particularly at this time when they are struggling to operate freely due to government harassment and being imprisoned on baseless charges. Without Iranian conservationists being able to act and move freely in pursuit of their aims to protect nature Iran cannot hope to reach the levels of environmental protection it is hoping for. It will also continue to struggle in this matter whilst contending with sanctions, an area Iranian conservationists are also working on by pushing for a fifth Geneva Convention that protects the environment at times of armed conflict and embargo (Walker, 2019). Iran perfectly exhibits the complex web of factors linked to conservation and biodiversity in the Middle East. It may not be experiencing as many of the usual threats to the natural world but it could still see ecosystems fall like dominoes in the years to come if they fail to tackle the aforementioned challenges head on as well as finding some kind of consensus with the wider world that will allow them to access greater resources for conservation.
Israel
Israel is a nation that unfortunately has a tendency to hit the headlines for all the wrong reasons, as its relationships with neighbouring countries goes from ice cold to burning hot with little in between and its government comes under fire for both its morally questionable policies and leadership one could be forgiven for having Israel’s biodiversity drop off of the radar. However, as is the case with all nations on earth, whether we appreciate it or not we are all interconnected with and reliant on nature and Israel is no exception. Though Israel is a relatively smaller state as compared to Saudi Arabia or Iran it is in fact in possession of 3.5% of the globally known species. However, plant and animal diversity is in decline. “Of 2,388 wild plant species, 413 (17.3%) are endangered and only 67 are among Israel’s 268 protected plant species. Moreover, 142 of Israel’s 454 vertebrate species are endangered. Some 28 species went regionally extinct and 6 have gone extinct. The Red Data Book of Vertebrates points out that 35% of the remaining vertebrate species are endangered (20% of avian species, 62% of mammal species and 82% of amphibian species). Finally, compared to the status in 2001, the status of 21 bird species worsened, that of 22 species remained stable and that of 2 species has improved” (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2023). Israel has been something of a mixed bag with certain regions showing small but neccessary improvements in marine ecosystems and woodland cover over the years whilst inland water habitats, marshes and the Dead Sea system has experienced continued degradation. Biodiversity in Israel has been valued at NIS 122 billion ($35.2 billion) per year and yet a recent report by the State Comptroller found that 89% of ecosystems in Israel have declined in terms of biodiversity (Surkes, 2022), which calls into question both how Israel is losing it biodiversity at such a rate, how much it truly values its biodiversity and what it is doing to resolve this issue. The first of these questions is relatively easy to answer as a fairly significant amount of data has been collected on the key factors linked to the nations decline in biodiversity, including,
Urban and agricultural development and rapid population growth,
Habitat fragmentation, degradation and destruction,
Illegal hunting,
Pollution and poisoning,
Road kills, electrocution and collisions,
Climate Change (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2023),
Invasive species introduction; (birds which have been imported as pets have bred rapidly and supplanted local species, destructive insect species such as the Formosan termite and the fire ant are presenting serious threats to biodiversity and the environment, 452 invasive marine species have also been found which can seriously jeopardise the equilibrium of marine ecosystems),
The state has no strategic action plan for dealing with the decline,
Has no blacklist of species that are potentially harmful to biodiversity and should not be allowed into the country,
Carries out only partial border checks of incoming cargo and goods which might harbor potentially destructive insects (Surkes, 2022),
And finally it is worth noting here that conflict and the resulting violence are an everyday occurence in Israel which puts biodiversity - especially endemic biodiversity - at risk (Conservation Beyond Borders, 2023).
Israel is attempting something quite unique in trying to balance biodiversity conservation with the ongoing violence playing out in the region. In the case of Israel, whilst we would like to see vast improvements in conservation and protection we must also find some hope in the small victories which are achieved in light of the instability which simmers and boils over across the region. Whilst one can empathise with and understand the need to divert resources towards political and security needs in times of crisis there must also be some recognition of the need to develop sustainably and continue to protect those natural resources and ecosystems upon which the Israeli population relies. Israel has gone some way towards this in looking to achieve the 2020 Aichi Biodiversity Targets. “In 2008, nature reserves and national parks that have been officially declared covered 20% of Israel’s land area, though some habitats are only poorly represented” (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2023). Active management programs have been implemented for endangered species with small attempts being made to rewild certain species such as the African Softshell Turtle. There have also been active efforts made to revert land use back to grazing for wild animals, producing ecological corridors and restoring wetland and woodland habitats (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2023). This was followed up by Israel signing up to President Biden’s 30 by 30 initiative - which aims to conserve 30% of a countries land and water by 2030 - that should be relatively easy to achieve considering 24% of Israel’s land area are now classified as nature reserves (Zion, 2022). However, the Israeli government has recieved a certain amount of criticism for failing to adequately budget for a national program to protect biodiversity and are currently battling it out over a Nature and Biodiversity Bill which would make them responsible for producing annual reports on the state of nature (Surkes, 2022). Things are however beginning to click across the private and public sector and those small victories are beginning to become apparent. “Israel is blazing forward with a plan to protect sections of its 118-mile coastline, a measure experts say is crucial to maintain biodiversity and shield ecosystems from humanity” (Zion, 2022). This plan is part of the wider actions being take to protect Israel’s critical Mediterranean coast through which key species and habitats have begun to bounce back and is evidence of what Israel is capable of when it sets its mind to protecting biodiversity. Though the state of nature may not sit at the top of Israel’s list of priorities they are doing something and that’s a start, we must hope that the people of Israel and the wider Middle East find some way to ceasefire and shift their efforts to conservation and easing the wider climate crisis before there is nothing left to fight over.
Palestine
Some may find it provocative to place Israel and Palestine next to one another in a report like this, however, this placement serves as a reminder that the loss of biodiversity and the climate crisis as a whole transcends our differences, it transcends war and violence and it transcends faith. The stark reality is that Palestine and Israel are neighbours who share many of the same ecological challenges, they are prisoners of geography, as are the creatures which inhabit their lands and suffer at the hands of human conflict, industrialisation and changes in behaviours. It is for that reason that this report wishes to highlight the two communities similarities, not differences for a change, and to show that, at least in some things they must find ways to set aside their differences and work together for the common good.
Palestine has managed to remain most up to date with its national reports to the Convention on Biological Diversity which helps us in visualising the situation on the ground and in showing just how much a nation can do, even whilst contending with daily conflict and violence. To date Palestine houses 3% of global biodiversity spread across a land with constantly shifting frontiers and beliefs of ownership. For now Palestine controls 13 natural reserves on the West Bank as part of its 51 total protected areas all of which come under direct national governance (IUCN, 2023). Though exact data on species population size is somewhat harder to come across owing to the political instability and obvious lack of funding for such research in the region we can observe the work going on in other sectors to increase conservation efforts and thanks to Qumsiyeh and Mohammed we can pinpoint the exact challenges and pressures placed on local biodiversity as well as how much of a threat they pose in each specific region such as;
Habitats fragmentation (due to urbanization, destruction of forests, climate change, desertification, colonial activities) - Very high risk in both the West Bank and Gaza,
Desertification and soil erosion (due to overgrazing, climate change, infrastructure construction etc) - High risk in West Bank and Very High risk in Gaza,
Urbanization and population growth - Very High risk in the West Bank and Medium risk in Gaza,
Removal of rocks for construction (stone querries etc) - Very Low risk in the West Bank and Very High risk in Gaza,
Uprooting trees - Low risk in the West Bank and High risk in Gaza,
Overgrazing - Low risk in the West Bank and Very Low risk in Gaza,
Land degradation (poor planning, soil erosion etc.) - High risk in the West Bank and Very High risk in Gaza,
Invasive alien species, No Data in either the West Bank or Gaza,
Climate change - Low Risk in the West Bank and Medium risk in Gaza,
Overexploitation (including poaching, overfishing etc). - High risk in the West Bank and Very High in Gaza,
Pollution (waste water, solid waste, use of chemical pesticides/insecticides/fertilizers) - Medium risk in the West Bank and Very High risk in Gaza,
Colonial residential and industrial settlements and associated infrastructure (like the Segregation wall) - Very High risk in the West Bank and Very Low risk in Gaza (Qumsiyeh and Abusarhan, 2021).
We can see from this just how much the risks and biodiversity loss can vary from one area to another and how Palestine will need to take on an adaptive and resilient response system if they want to conserve nature for future generations. Biodiversity conservation strategies have begun in earnest across Palestine starting at the top with the government becoming party to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) since 2015 and working tirelessly to fulfill obligations to report on national biodiversity strategies and actions (State of Palestine, 2021). They have as mentioned worked to provide protected spaces, two of the most significant being the Palestine: Land of Olives and Vines − Cultural Landscape of Southern Jerusalem, and Wadi al Quff which contain numerous flora and fauna, much of which is believed to be endemic (IUCN, 2023). On a more local small scale level Palestinian villagers in Battir near Bethlehem have been making strides towards conservation by preserving a millennia-old Roman-era terraced agriculture system through which the citizens of the village have been able to avoid further landscape conversion (Shulman, 2020). Many continue to believe that it will be impossible for Palestinians to protect and maintain natural ecosystems (Persavalli, 2021), and in that they may be right as the continuing frictions and faltlines between Israel and Palestine will always have a negative impact on biodiversity and the natural world as all conflicts do there is hope in those small victories. Palestine relies on the natural world and its abundant resources, as does Israel and whilst the two may remain blinded to the oncoming ecological disaster by political conflict there may come a time when they both realise that their survival relies entirely on the natural world around them.
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