Women in Climate Policy; The Trailblazing Women of Africa
Women have been the strength and stay of many African Nations throughout history as warriors, mothers, matriarchs, freedom fighters and now politicians, NGO workers and climate activists. The disenfranchised, poor, and repressed image of African women and girls often portrayed in global media could not be further from the truth for many amazing women who are taking their place in what was and to some extent remains a patriarchal society in almost every nation across the continent. The strength of these women to defy traditional gender roles and seek a career and voice outside of the home evidences at least in part the importance of their role in politics and in particular their steering of the climate policies to come. In a region which is already experiencing the grave impacts of climate change in the form of drought, desertification, forced migration, etc. the inevitable loss of life, livelihoods and futures are often felt most deeply by women due to the systemic gender inequalities which are so deeply rooted in African society. This does not mean however that these women are either powerless or vulnerable as many have weathered far greater storms and when given the opportunity will exhibit far greater resilience to disasters and crises than their male counterparts.
In a continent that has over the course of the last one hundred years often been defined by the fight for independence, war, genocide, poverty, famine, exploitation and racial/ethnic/gender inequalities one may be forgiven for believing that climate policy would be at the very bottom of the list of daily worries for African people and politicians. Yet, the behaviour of the global north and their current abuses of the natural world will leave the 400 million Africans who are living below the global poverty line ($1.90 per day) in a particularly difficult position as access to food, water, education, energy and healthcare becomes increasingly insecure. Climate change also runs the risk of destabilising food production in nations which rely on agriculture for economic growth, contributing yet further to rural and urban poverty (Ray, 2021). In such nations, which are often geared up and focused upon western style economic and social development the way in which they achieve their goals will no longer be able to be achieved through replicating the industrial revolution as neither the planet nor Africa’s fragile ecosystems can cope with such pressure. Whilst this is unfair and reflects the blatant inequalities between African nations and the global north it also represents an opportunity to weave sustainability and green climate policies into the fabric of each country's development and future growth policies, thereby ensuring a more stable and prosperous future for all. This does however present significant challenges, which many African women are rising to and are in turn paving the way for the young women and girls who will follow them in the years to come. These women may not speak the same language, share the same religion or beliefs, they may come from disparate cultures and hold varying political views, however, they do share a common purpose, to safeguard the future of Africa and to tackle climate change with everything they’ve got!
So, why are women more likely to be negatively affected by climate change (IUCN, 2021) in Africa? The answer in a nutshell is that “women are more likely to live in poverty than men, have less access to basic human rights like the ability to freely move and acquire land, and face systematic violence that escalates during periods of instability” (Ibrahim et al., 2020) meaning that in the current climate crisis women in African countries, where gender inequality and economic marginalisation are prevalent, will have less access to resources to cope with climate change and may be left at risk and unprotected against the worst elements of society. Nevertheless, evidence shows that women’s empowerment and inclusion in the policymaking process can improve climate resilience and mitigation for women, families and communities (IUCN, 2021). The UNDP 2012 training module on linkages between gender and climate change found four major points that pertain to Africa;
“Climate change is threatening the social, economic and ecological systems of our planet. The 4th Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) documents evidence of wide-ranging impacts on freshwater resources, food, forest products, coastal systems, low-lying areas, industry, settlements, society and human health (Boko et al. 2007; UNDP 2007). It is also likely that the adverse effects of climate change could derail progress toward sustainable development and achievement of the MDGs (Boko et al.2007; World Bank 2010; UNDP 2007). Low Human Development Index (HDI) countries have already experienced the greatest reduction in rainfall and the greatest increase in its variability, with implications for agricultural production and livelihoods (UNDP 2011b).
The impacts of climate change will vary regionally, with more adverse impacts expected in low-latitude and polar regions. Africa will be among the hardest hit continents (Boko et al. 2007; World Bank 2010b). The impacts of climate change in Africa include a rise in the sea level, coastal erosion, stress on freshwater resources, deforestation, and an increase in the intensity and recurrence of disasters and the spread of malaria (Figure 1). Combined with these impacts, multiple stressors that manifest themselves in poverty, governance deficits, conflicts, HIV/AIDS and debt also weaken the capacity of many African countries to adapt to these effects (Boko et al. 2007; Toulmin 2009).
Poor and marginalized segments of society are especially vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change since they tend to have limited resources and hence a limited capacity to adapt and their livelihoods tend to be highly dependent on natural resources that are sensitive to climatic vulnerability (FAO 2011; Dankelman 2010; Women Watch 2009). For example, agriculture, a highly climate-sensitive sector, supports the livelihoods of 70 percent of Africa’s population of approximately 1 billion, contributes to about 30 percent of the continent’s GDP and about 50 percent of the total export value, and employs 65 percent of the continent’s labour force (Boko et al. 2007; Toulmin 2009; World Bank 2008).
Women constitute the largest percentage of the world’s poorest people and are most affected by these changes (Boko et al. 2007; Toulmin 2009; Women Watch 2009). Women are more exposed to climatic risk not just because they represent the majority of the world’s poor – and therefore lack the means to cope with adverse impacts of the changing climate – but also because they are more dependent on the livelihoods and natural resources that tend to be more sensitive to these changes.” (Habtezion et al.,2012)
African women are well suited and well situated to lead the way in climate policy for both their nations and for the rest of the world as their extensive experience and understanding of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK), which has been built up over generations, paired with a growing base of educated, worldly and politically savvy women has given rise to a generation who could affect real change in their nations climate policy. All these women unfortunately represent an extensive but underused resource for the fight against climate change, which, if harnessed correctly could help to stabilise African societies and protect against some of the worst impacts of climate change. We will now look at the four major geographical points of Africa, discover how women in these regions are being affected by climate change, find out more about the position of women who are informing and implementing climate policies in these areas and throw a spotlight on some of the trailblazing female climate activists and leaders in these regions.
West Africa
West Africa is home to over twenty nations (Nigeria, Benin, Niger, Mali, Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Senegal, Togo, Guinea-Bissau, Gambia, Mauritania, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Chad, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Angola, Morocco, Tunisia and Republic of the Congo) which span from the wealthiest and most densely populated to the poorest and least populous country. It is a region which truly reflects the rich cultural, historical, ethnic, linguistic and religious diversity of Africa and has seen more than its fair share of instability and gender inequality. Yet, the women living in these nations are finding their feet in both grass roots projects and national level climate policy making, thereby elevating other women and young girls by giving them a voice and an opportunity to shape their own climate resilient futures.
The Sahel (the semi-arid land that forms a transition zone between the Sahara to the north and the Savannahs to the South), which covers numerous West African nations (Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Gambia, Guinea, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Nigeria and Senegal) has been recognised as a climate change hotspot where temperatures are increasing 1.5 times faster than the rest of the world. In this region 65% of people live in rural areas are already suffering from intensifying droughts, floods and desertification (D'Andrea, 2021). As women make up 80% of the agricultural labour force in this region (D'Andrea, 2021) they remain vulnerable to fluctuations in agricultural productions and fresh-water access whilst often feeling the full or indirect impacts of natural disasters, climate-induced migration and conflicts. Disasters such as flooding over the last five years have exacerbated this situation by degrading land and inhibiting food production, which has left those women, often left behind by men who have headed to cities in search of work, to work through the drying up of natural water sources and reduced agricultural yields. If fighting for their livelihoods is not enough, these women also face systemic discriminatory practices and beliefs which are leaving more women vulnerable to poverty. “Climate change in the Sahel is thus accentuating an already wide gender gap in the region: according to the African Development Bank’s Gender Equality in Africa Index, the gender gap in the Sahel region is 48.4%, larger than the 31% continental average” (D'Andrea, 2021).
This data, though accurate, does not however speak to the aims of local governments, the women-led grassroots projects or the strong female leaders who are fighting both climate change and gender inequality. In Nigeria’s 2020, National Action Plan on Gender and Climate Change the socio-economic and socio-political disparities between men and women have been further recognised, as between 1999-2015 the parliament was made up of 94.71% men leading to a lack of gender-sensitive legislations including those pertaining to climate change (Federal Republic of Nigeria Federal Ministry of Environment, 2020). This action plan has led to the implementation of a number of gender focused climate policies such as to “promote the implementation of gender responsive and sustainable adaptation and mitigation initiatives that will minimise risks associated with climate change while maximising opportunities for women, men, youth and other vulnerable groups”, they also plan to “establish a gender responsive monitoring and evaluation system for the collection and regular dissemination of sex disaggregated data on climate change issues” and “provide a uniform implementation guide and platform for partnerships building and coordination among key stakeholders working on gender and climate change in Nigeria” (Federal Republic of Nigeria Federal Ministry of Environment, 2020). These best laid plans are however still in the works and we must continue to observe the level of commitment shown by Nigeria’s government whilst finding new ways to support those women involved in these projects. Meanwhile, women from across West African society are taking it upon themselves to safeguard their futures.
In Tunisia Hayet Taboui and a group of other Tunisian women have set up the Sidi Bou Zitoun association which aims to protect the El Feija National Parks’ ancient trees. The group noticed that thousand-year-old trees lacked protection, that traditional seeds were being lost and that by safeguarding these seeds they could create job opportunities in the local community and preserve biodiversity through new methods of farming. The seeds are being planted in community gardens in the hope that they will adapt to the climate conditions year upon year. In a region with 21.5% poverty the project has given more than 150 inhabitants of the region, mainly women and youth, a new income, and opportunities outside of the home (Manisera and Poletti, 2021).
Forests have also become an area of focus for women in the Democratic Republic of the Congo as the Itombwe Rainforest experiences significant resource depletion and destruction and the Pygmy forest communities suffer from extensive human rights abuses the women of south Kivu province have been “organizing through the Women’s Earth and Climate Action Network (WECAN) in partnership with Synergie des Associations Feminines du Congo (SAFECO) to raise awareness about women’s rights and leadership; the long-term harm of industrial deforestation and illegal logging; protection of the Itombwe Rainforest in relation to climate change solutions; the importance of learning hands-on reforestation techniques; defending the rights of Indigenous Pygmy women and the local communities living in and around forest areas, and renewing cultural practices connected to land respect” (WECAN, 2022). The programme was set up by two brilliant women, Osprey Orielle Lake and Neema Namadamu, with the aim to:
● “protect and regenerate forest ecosystems for biodiversity well-being and climate mitigation;
● create income-generating livelihoods for women through tree planting and harvesting and sale of fruits and herbs from planted trees; secure land ownership for women;
● give girls more access to education since they will not need to walk such long distances in order to provide daily wood and other forest needs;
● protect women and girls from molestation during long walks to locate wood;
● create women’s empowerment and respect in their communities;
● and to uplift Indigenous worldviews of humans living in the right relationship with nature.” (WECAN, 2022)
This outstanding project is already seeing success with year on year reduction in the deterioration of the Itombwe rainforest. They have also seen further reforestation with one hundred thousand trees planted by women leaders and community members so far. In 2020, the WECAN project started its food sovereignty component which has crucially stabilised food security near to displacement camps.
Last, but certainly not least, we turn to Morocco where women are boosting the green energy transition. In a nation which suffers from structural unemployment and significant gender inequalities, women in Morocco have come under further pressure due to desertification, air pollution, soil erosion and over exploitation of water sources. In 2020 WECF (Women Engage for a Common Future) engaged with women in communities in Souss Massa and Tangier-Tetouan to introduce solar power cookers and start the increased inclusion of women in the energy transition. The project began by selecting and training 40 young women technicians in manufacturing solar thermal technologies and becoming “solar ambassadors'' who can help to bring sustainable, affordable solar solutions to the wider community (den Bossche, 2021). The project is not only actively contributing to the sustainable energy transition but is also engaging with women at a community level, disproving the prevalent gender stereotypes in Morocco and giving young women in particular opportunities to access education, work and thrive outside of the home. Though West Africa may be far from perfect there are evidently efforts being made at all levels of society to combat climate change by engaging with women and attempting to extend gender equality further than ever before.
North Africa
North Africa (Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Morocco, Egypt, Sudan, Mauritania, Chad, Equatorial Guinea) is where Africa meets the Middle East with a beautiful blending of cultures evident across the region. These two regions are often placed under the same umbrella but in this case, we wanted to celebrate the unique North African women who are finding new methods for sustainability and climate resistance in the most unlikely of places. In an area that has experienced significant political upheaval with often devastating consequences for the general population, women have throughout this been finding a voice for themselves in societies which have often segregated genders and hindered women from participating at a political or even local level. The traditional gender roles in North Africa which have been and are being heavily influenced by the culture and predominant faiths of the region have unfortunately further contributed to the socio-economic vulnerabilities of these women and have in part left many in difficulty when faced with the full force of climate change.
Governments, International Organisations and the general populations of many North African countries have recognised the exponential increase in climate related crises across the world and in their region. With North Africa expected to be one of the hardest hit regions “facing increasing temperatures, droughts and decreasing and or/varying levels of rainfall and groundwater levels” (Desmidt, 2021). In an area that is semi-arid and at risk of falling back into turmoil due to weak governance structures and the absence of effective regional cooperation further fractures between North African governments and its peoples may appear likely in the not-so-distant future. This could prove disastrous for many women across the social spectrum with significant portions of the North African population concentrated along coastal lines within 100km of the coast (68.8 percent in Algeria, 78.7 percent in Libya, 65.1 percent in Morocco, and 84 percent in Tunisia) who are at risk from sea level rise, which could cause significant internal displacement (Al-Olaimy, 2020). As difficulties related to displacement have a disproportionate impact on women this could push back decades of hard-fought rights and leave many vulnerable to violence, malnutrition and could in some cases increase rates of underage marriage and reduce access to education. Rising water is not, however, their most significant problem as Egypt faces a reduction of 40-60% in Nile river flow; the country is already having to redesign its water policy. With a lack of fresh water and increasing temperatures the agricultural economy could face serious hardships, with every degree rise nations could lose 1.1% in economic growth (Al-Olaimy, 2020). North Africa could face an 11% reduction in agricultural yields as desertification reaches its dusty claws across Africa, meaning rice production will be particularly affected, likely destabilising the food security of numerous North Africans (United Nations Climate Change, 2020). Outside of Egypts 2011 National Strategy for Mainstreaming Gender in Climate change (Aguilar et al., 2011) it is relatively difficult to find a concerted effort being made at a national level in any North African nation to recognise the part women have to play in contributing to climate policy and sustainability systems, which considering the extremity of climate impacts in the region is somewhat disconcerting as women remain undervalued (Desmidt, 2021) even when so many are educated at a higher level and have the passion and know how to make great changes. However, all this doesn’t mean that women aren’t active in the climate sphere, quite the opposite in fact as many are being engaged by international organisations or forming their own groups to make change in small and larger ways within their respective countries.
In Giza, Egypt a group of women are knocking on doors with the aim of making families greener. During 2020 Egypt stepped up its efforts to protect the environment and address climate change by introducing electric buses, boosting renewable energy, and attempting to ban plastic bags. These steps were only the first as the environmental awareness campaigns shifted gear towards women and household decisions. As public figures such as Saeeda Mahmoud, a government representative and rural leader trained by the Ministry of Environment, began knocking on doors to discuss and give advice to members of the public on sorting recycling which “can be sold to dealers, thereby increasing household cash while helping the environment” this go-green project proved the effectiveness of uniting the Egyptian Ministry of Environment and the state-run National Council for Women. “With a million Egyptian pounds ($63,000) in funding, the programme aims to reach a million women in three cities - greater Cairo, Giza and Fayoum - and could be expanded to other cities in coming years, officials say. Carried out by 400 women leaders chosen from the three project areas, it relies on women who are visited at home sharing what they’ve learned with others in their communities, and with younger generations” (Farouk, 2020). Samah Saleh, head of the women’s unit at the Ministry of Environment, has commended the project for showing the direct effect women can have on climate change, even from the home.
Meanwhile, in Sudan the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has been working alongside women, in particular war widows, to ensure food security and economic stability for families in a region that has been decimated by war, terrorism, and famine. The Wadi El Ku Catchment Management Project has trained women like Khartoum Abdulrahman Al Duma how to harvest, store and market their produce such as peanuts and sesame flowers, which many war widows now rely on as a key income source. The new training these women have received is centred around the fast-changing climate of the region, which has seen rainfall dwindle in recent years. To combat this, the same project has planted over 60,000 native seedlings and supported the construction of weirs to conserve and regulate rainwater, which has proven to be successful as conflicts between nomadic herders and farmers have reduced. Recently the project has spread to “villages of Ed-Elbaida, Bahr-Omdurman, Sag-Elnaam, Wad-Kuta and Wada to train women in modern farming techniques… the project helped get the farms up and running, preparing land, providing ploughs, and donating groundnut, sesame and sorghum seeds. That support helped the women-led farms weather a dry growing season better than many in their area” (United Nations, 2022). The support of this project has now convinced Abdulrahman to continue to train other women in the more sustainable farming methods and ensure food security for more women in the region, in turn offsetting the chance of resource related violence and safeguarding the future for many Sudanese women. One can’t help but feel a sense of admiration for these women who are working in challenging circumstances to tackle climate change in their own ways and to prove that women can work at both governmental and community levels to implement changes. Though these projects have been backed by a higher authority or organisation we must not forget the women on the ground who often take on much of the labour as in the cases of Abdulrahman or Saeeda Mahmoud, without their willingness and know how such projects could not hope to succeed or spread to new communities.
East Africa
East African nations (Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, Comoros, Malawi, Somalia, South Sudan, Mozambique, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Zambia, Sudan, South Africa, Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Chad, Egypt and Botswana) cover a significant portion of the continent and by now you may be wondering why certain nations come under the umbrella of more than one region and that is simply because many African nations cover such a large geographical area that we cannot simply place each nation in a single box. We must instead look to the cultural, linguistic and historical markers that place communities and people in different regions instead of the disingenuous border lines put in place by foreign colonisers whose only real interest was the exploitation of natural resources and the possession of large tracts of lands and peoples that they could call part of their empires. Perhaps East Africa is most symbolic of this time as it is home to past colonies as well as to the one country that pushed back foreign oppression and remained independent. However, this region should not be characterised by its unfortunate history both within and outside of colonial oppression. With violence, wide scale famine and drought, piracy, civil war, poverty and structural inequality against women often being the pervasive image of Eastern Africa throughout European, North American and global media it may be difficult to imagine this area as a thriving space filled with women who are actively working in climate policy and sustainability.
East Africa is one of the most volatile regions in Africa due to the various aforementioned difficulties and climate change is now playing its part in exacerbating these pre-existing problems. Despite reforms in recent years, East African women still struggle to access much needed resources and have a real say in the decision-making process, leaving many in a weaker position when adapting to climate change in comparison to men. The implication of this is a fluctuation in migration patterns between genders as numerous women face a greater role at home and are often forced to confront increased violence. There is growing evidence of the connections between climate change, migration and gender disparities (Abebe, 2019) as an Oxfam Case Study Report highlights the vulnerabilities of women, in particular those in agriculture, who are now facing extreme difficulties. “In 2013 and 2014, poverty rates in Ethiopia, Mozambique and Uganda were 30%, 48.4% and 19.7% respectively. Importantly, poverty is intricately linked to climate vulnerability in these three countries through the level of dependency of rural livelihoods on the natural environment. For instance, around 70 million people in Ethiopia − 80% of the population − depended on rain-fed agriculture. Furthermore, subsistence farming accounted for 90% of total agricultural output in 2010-2011. Whilst many of these communities are used to adapting to changing environmental conditions, the current rate of climate change is unprecedented and will destabilise already precarious livelihoods. In Ethiopia, the most significant risk for those living on degraded land is drought. Similarly, 33% of Uganda is wetland, so it is especially vulnerable to changes in rainfall. In Mozambique, livelihoods are at risk of climate change disaster in the form of droughts, floods, cyclones and sea level rises” (Oxfam International, 2020). These are just three nations of many in the region, but they represent an unfortunate reality for most countries whose individual circumstances closely reflect those which we see here, this further evidences the intersectional relationship between poverty, climate vulnerability and gender inequalities. The unfortunate tendency to ignore the unique perspectives of women and girls means that not only communities but governments and international organisations can “lose out on ideas, visions and potential effective climate change interventions that are gender sensitive and responsive” (Babugura, 2019). In times of climate induced natural disasters women and adolescent girls feel this lack of autonomy not just in government policy but in their own health. After Cyclone Idai in 2019 women in Mozambique, Malawi and Zimbabwe faced a significant drop in access to sanitation and healthcare with 75,000 pregnant women left vulnerable due to a lack of reproductive health services, clean water, and sanitation, 7,000 of which were at risk of experiencing life threatening complications. As women and girls ended up in aid camps it was they who waited in long queues under the burning sun for hours for food all whilst fearing the risk of abuse in these camps (Babugura, 2019).
The strength and resilience of East African women may not always be on show for people across the globe to see but they are there, and their efforts cannot continue to go unnoticed. That is what this paper is all about and why we want to show the good works of the women across the societal spectrum in this region. We will begin with Rwanda, a nation which has been commended for its gender equality in government and now in supporting the inclusion of women in climate policy. With women holding positions in many areas of environmental governance the importance of gender inclusive policies has certainly not been lost on the Rwandan government this International Women's Day. “The Rwanda Green growth and climate resilience strategy and the Strategic plan for climate resilience help to shape gender inclusive programs and projects that may provide resources or various forms of support needed to cope with the impacts of climate change” (GGGI, 2022). With some of the most significant political figures speaking publicly on the importance of climate change and gender;
● “Permanent Secretary for the Ministry of Environment, Rwanda Fatina Mukarubibi encouraged all to “commit to raising awareness on impacts of climate change to women & men & programs that support adaptation & mitigation”
● Director General at the Rwanda Environment Management Authority Coletha U. Ruhamya reiterated that “traditionally women are majority users of natural resources; in any environmental & climate change catastrophes, they endure hardship with their children, women must assume their part in ensuring Sustainable management of our natural resources”
● Director General for Environment & Climate Change at the Ministry Juliet Kabera said “we cannot attain sustainable development without gender equality, Rwanda has developed coherent gender equality policies & we are committed to uncover professional potential of both women & men in environment & climate change.” (GGGI, 2022)
Meanwhile, across a thin strip of sea in Madagascar, one woman is taking action by stabilising food security and saving her village from starvation. After a prolonged drought in 2021 in the deep south of Madagascar 1.3 million people struggled to find food and 28,000 faced starvation, but Loharano has been working to protect her village, Tsimanananda, from the worst of the drought (Byaruhanga, 2021). Loharano saw the devastating effects of a similar drought in 2013 and this time chose to engage a local charity, the Agro-ecological Centre of the South, to bring new information to villagers through delivering talks on planting drought-resistant crops and introducing new techniques to revitalise the soil. This drought and resultant famine is disputedly the first to be caused by climate change and the leadership of Loharano signifies the importance of women in times of crises. As governments either struggle to or are unwilling to react to such climate induced crises it has never mattered more for women at a local level to interact with charities and share their knowledge with their communities.
Finally, we are turning our attention to Kenya, a place known for its amazing wildlife and diverse cultures and traditions. The women of northern Kenya are working together to end violence caused by a lack of water linked to climate change. Led by Habiba Tadicha, first female chair of the Biliqo Bulesa Community Conservancy, women across the villages in the surrounding area come together regularly to have talks with herders who are fighting over the limited resources (Kariuki and Mergenthaler, 2021). These peace talks are mediated by Habiba who regularly takes risks to take part in wildlife conservation and proving to her community the benefits of safeguarding their natural resources. In a country where gender equality is enshrined in law, but seldom seen in practice, Habiba has been shot at and harassed but remains undeterred as she channels funds from the conservancy into education and supporting the small business ventures of local women. She represents one more woman making small changes that can have a greater and more beneficial effect on her community and the environment. By putting an end to violence over resources and providing education for young women she is a fine example of an African woman taking part in community climate and environmental policy making.
South Africa
We complete our cross-continent tour in Southern Africa (South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Lesotho, Malawi, Angola, Zambia & Eswatini), which may have slightly fewer nations but is no less affected by climate change. In an area of extremes that has seen some of the worst racism of the 20th Century, some of the highest temperatures on the continent, and some of the highest levels of poverty in Africa, the rapid development of the 21st Century can often stand in stark contrast to the inequality that remains rampant in so many areas. With Apartheid and Nelson Mandela being the core image most outsiders see when they picture Southern Africa this mix of tragedy and hope could speak to the struggle against climate change and gender inequality in the region. As The New Humanitarian so accurately states “the global climate crisis is not gender neutral” and women are shouldering much of the burden in coping with the changing weather patterns with some 12 million people currently facing severe food insecurity across nine southern African nations as a result of cyclones, floods and droughts, which are made more extreme due to climate change (Lowcock and Kanem, 2020). For those women who are more likely to be living in poverty and struggle to access land for food production the weight of inequality and the daily struggle for survival can lead to the erosion of basic rights to safety and protections and old gender norms can also return, bringing with them risks of increased violence towards women and girls. Across Southern Africa, especially in drought affected regions, the dropout rate for girls leaving education has been steadily increasing as the need to find food and water, make money, or take care of siblings, takes precedence over their education. Zambia has seen dozens of primary schools close whilst families turn to underage marriage to resolve issues related to a lack of money, assets, or food. With a rise in food insecurity across Mozambique, Namibia and Zambia girls are increasingly fearing for their safety as a high number of reports of gender-based violence are being heard by the Humanitarian Plan International as well as rampant early marriage rates for 13-16 year olds (Lowcock and Kanem, 2020). If climate change were to worsen this situation the future for many Southern African women would look bleak as even when they are actively taking part in society the highly patriarchal nature of nations such as Zimbabwe means that even leaders cannot publicly recognise the “transformative effect that bringing women onboard” (Vetter, 2021) can have, which propagates further the structural inequalities women face across Africa.
We have seen so many brilliant women who are finding hope in the darkest of places and fighting back against patriarchy, traditional gender roles and cultural confines to help our climate and their communities. Our final three cases are equally as inspirational and were unfortunately somewhat difficult to find. Though Zambia is experiencing more than its fair share of climate related crises, its government has in recent years started to make attempts in the way of understanding the gendered impacts of climate change and setting out action plans in a variety of sectors. By taking the first step of drawing up a Climate Change Gender Action Plan (Climate Change Gender Action Plan Of The Republic Of Zambia, 2018) they can open doors for more women to be involved in policymaking at a government and local level. For this they should be commended, and we must hope that the women of Zambia are able to take hold of this plan and run with it.
In countries where change is not necessarily emanating from the top we can find examples such as Ms Catherine Mkandawire from Malawi whose early life received a tremendous uplift thanks to village elders preventing her from being married off at 13 like the 9% of Malawian girls married before age 15 and 42% before 18 (UNFPA, 2022). Having avoided the terrible fate of underage marriage Ms Mkandawire went on to become educated and earn an advanced degree. Now she is a leader in UNFPA’s Safeguard Youth Programme which protects girls from underage marriage. After recognising that climate change and gender inequality are interconnected, she started her own climate resiliency project by planting 2,500 pine trees on family land, brought in bee hives and a fish pond surrounded by wildflowers and a banana crop. By showing local farmers and villagers the success of sustainably diversifying land use instead of subsistence farming the local chief has donated forestry for use in a Youth project and many young people are attempting to learn from her farming style. Every Saturday Ms. Mkandawire holds talks on environmental conservation, climate change and gender issues (UNFPA, 2022), but it is her impressive actions, which have ensured the gravitas of her talks that are most likely to have impressed the locals and changed many mind-sets.
Our final trailblazing woman is Shamiso Mupara, the founder and executive director of Environmental Buddies Zimbabwe, which runs environmental campaigns, beekeeping training and engaging women in meaningful forest based businesses. Mupara’s close connections to the forests and grasslands were forged in her growing up in Zimbabwe’s periods of extreme drought where young girls were married off to much older men to secure grain or livestock for the family. After seeing the heart-breaking effects of drought, she became determined to make a change. Environmental Buddies Zimbabwe focuses on improving the lives of poor, rural women through reforestation initiatives and education. Thus, far they have reached 5,000 women and intend to have helped the cohort to continue to plant indigenous trees throughout the country by 2030. “Bringing forests closer to rural communities enables girls to quickly complete their daily chores of collecting firewood, thereby allowing and encouraging them to stay in school for longer periods and engage in other income-generating projects. It further empowers women to sustain themselves in related industries such as beekeeping and jewellery-making, thereby creating female independence and reducing poverty” (Matsengarwodzi, 2022). In reducing poverty Mupara will help women to be less vulnerable to the effects of climate change and will give many more a say in the use of forests and grasslands in Zimbabwe. This is made all the more impressive by the engrained patriarchy in Zimbabwean society and proves that the innovation and tenacity of women can ensure the success of environment and climate projects/policies in even the most inhospitable of places.
Closing Remarks
The truly remarkable women in this paper should not only be role models and mentors for young African girls but can and should hold the same position for young women and girls across the globe. Their expertise and experiences are an invaluable resource which could be used for both education and to inform climate policy at a local, regional and international level. Their presence on the international stage has never been more important for healing the wounds of historical marginalisation and also for reforming international organisations into a more equal, less Eurocentric environment. However, their success is dependent not only on their strength and commitment to the cause but also on the support of those around them. This means at an international level we must make organisations and events more accessible by providing visas, travel or financial grants for in person and online attendance, carving out time and allocating an open space to discuss the unique issues facing African women and as an international community listening to these issues and finding new ways to improve aid and support that is led by African women for African women. At a regional and local level, African nations and the women who reside within them will continue to face struggles against patriarchy, traditional gender roles, culture and customs, gender discrimination and socioeconomic inequalities, however, women in these regions are proving that given the opportunity they can reach their full potential and in doing so help to safeguard and protect our natural world. In turn they will play their part in slowing climate change and hopefully stop some of the worst impacts of the climate crisis from turning back the clock on the hard-fought rights of African women in the 21st Century. By moulding the best of African culture and community practices with new technologies and gender equality Africa can and will prosper, possibly as one of the most eco-friendly and egalitarian places on earth.
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